Module-2

Time responses of discrete data systems

As the outputs of discrete-data control system are function
of the continuous variable t, with t = kT, k =1, 2, 3, .
It become a must to evaluate the performance of the
system in the time-domain.
Time response of a discrete-data control system can be
characterized by terms as in that of continuous-data
control system
(i) Maximum overshoot
(ii) Rise time
(iii) Delay time
Iv) Settling time
(v) Damping ratio
vi) Damping factor
vii) Natural undamped frequency
1

 Time response of a system can be divided into two

categories:
(1) Transient Response
(2) Steady state Response
Transient Response refers to that portion of the
response which is due to the closed loop system
poles.
Transient Response depends on the initial condition
of the system.
Transient response of a practical control system,
where the output signal is continuous-time, often
exhibits damped oscillation before reaching the
steady state.
Steady-state response refers to that portion of
the response which is due to the poles of the
2
forcing function.

 Selection of Gain K and Sampling Period T

From the studies of continuous-data control system:
Increasing the value of Gain K generally:

(i) would reduce the damping ratio.

(ii) Increase the maximum overshoot.
(iii) Increase the natural un-damped frequency and thus
bandwidth.
iv) reduce the steady-state error if it is finite and nonzero.
These properties would carry over to discrete-data
systems.
For sampling period , for a given K, increasing T would
cause instability
A smaller sampling period would require a faster clock
rate for digital computer, which translates into more
3
complex hardware and cost.

As the sampling period becomes smaller

, the roots move closer to the z = 1 point
in the first and fourth quadrant of z-plane.
Selection of the sampling period should
such that if the pole of the digital control
system would lie in the first and fourth
quadrants of z-plane
very close to the z=1 point, digital
control system would emulate the
corresponding continuous-time system.

 Correlation between the time response and

root location in s-plane and z-plane
Correlation between the location of the poles of
the system in the s-plane and the transient
response is well known for the continuous-time
system
For example, complex conjugate poles in the
left half of s-plane rise exponentially decaying
sinusoidal responses.
Poles on the negative real axis of s-plane
correspond to monotonically decaying
responses.
Simple conjugate roots on the imaginary axis of
s-plane give rise to un-damped constant
5
amplitude sinusoidal oscillations

 Multiple-order poles on the imaginary

axis and poles in the right half of s-plane
correspond to unstable responses.
The sampling operation bring about an
s 1s-plane
j1 jnat
inifinite number of poles in the
s,
n 1, 2, 3,...

net effect
is equivalent to having a
system
s with
1 j the
1 npoles,
s
The poles are then mapped onto the zplane using the transformation

ze

Ts

 Following Figures illustrates several cases

of the root location of a second-order
system in the s- and z-plane and their
corresponding time responses:

(1) Case when poles are imaginary axis

2) Case when the pole is midway in the

primary strip and on the imaginary axis in
the s-plane:
8

3) Case when the pole is near to ws/2 in the primary

strip and on the imaginary axis in the s-plane
9

4) Case when the pole is equal to ws/2

and on the imaginary axis in the s-plane
10

5) Case when the pole is equal to

in the s-plane
s 1 j s / 2
11

6) Case when the poles is equal to

in the s-plane
s 1 j 1 with 1 (s / 2)
12

7) Case when the pole is at origin

in the s-plane
13

8) Case when the pole is negative real axis

in the s-plane
14

9) Case when the poles is on the

right half of the s-plane.
15

 When the poles of the closed loop system

get nearer to the negative real axis of zplane, the system response become
oscillatory.
When the roots are all real and negative
in the z-plane, the response will be
oscillatory with alternate positive and
negative values.

16

Steady State Performance

Steady-state error analysis:
The error signal of control system is often
defines the difference between the reference
input and output.

e(t ) r (t ) b(t )
The error signal is defined as error
e(t ) is lost in the z-transformation analysis.
*
e (t ) sampled error signal is used.
17

 The steady-state error of the digital

system is given
as:
*
*

ess lim e (t ) lim e(kT )

t

By the using the final value theorem:

e lim 1 z
*
ss

z 1

E ( z)

With condition1 z 1 E ( z )
that does
not have any poles on or outside the unit
circle in z-plane.
The steady state error between sampling
instants can be determined by use of the
1
lim e(kT , m) lim 1 z E ( z, m)
modified kz-transform:

z 1
0 m 1

0 m 1

18

 whereE ( z, m)
e(t )
is the modified ztransform of
.
The z-transform ofR(error
signal e(t) is
z)
given by: E ( z ) 1 GH ( z )
G ( s ) H ( s )
( z ) 1is
zgiven by:
whereGHGH(z)

lim
e
(
t
)

lim
1

z
Therefore:
t
z 1
*
ss

R( z )
1 GH ( z )

GH ( z )

19

 Steady state error due to a step input

z
If r (t ) Aus (t ), then R ( z ) A
z 1

Steady state error is given by:

e lim e (t ) lim 1 z
*
ss

z 1

lim
z 1

z
A
z 1
1 GH ( z )

A
1 GH ( z )

1 lim GH ( z )
z 1

Let us define discrete step-error

constant as:
(Position error constant)

K lim GH ( z )
*
p

z 1

20

 Then

A
e
*
1 K p
*
ss

For ess*due to step input, tends to zero, as

K *p
approaches infinity.
which implies that GH(z) must be at least
one pole at z = 1.
Step error constant is meaningful only, if
reference input is a step function
Type of System

K (1 Ta s )(1 Tb s ) L (1 Tm s )
G (s) H (s) j
s (1 T1s )(1 T2 s )L (1 Tn s )
21

 Type of system is defined as number of

poles of system at origin in the s-plane.
The type of system defines as equal to j
( power of the s-term)
K (1 Ta s )(1 Tb s )L (1 Tm s )
1
Then
GH
(z) 1 z
j 1

(1 T1s )(1 T2 s )L (1 Tn s )

K1
For type 0 system:
Terms due to

GH ( z ) 1 z

non zero poles in s domain

K1 z

Terms due to non z 1

1

GH ( z ) 1 z
z 1

poles in z domain

22

 Terms due to non z = 1 poles in z-domain

does
not
contain
term
(z-1)
in
*
K pdenominator.
lim GH ( z )
z 1

lim 1 z
z 1

K1 z
1
lim 1 z Terms due to non z 1
z 1 z 1
poles in z domain

K1
Thus, for a type-0, the discrete step-error
constant is same as step error constant in
the continuous type-data system.
23

For Type-1 system:

N (s)
Consider plant as G ( s )
sD ( s )
where N ( s ) and D( s) does not have roots at s 0.
with zero order hold , transfer function becomes :
1 e Ts
Gho ( s)G ( s )
s

N ( s)

sD( s )

G ( z ) becomes :
1

G ( z ) (1 z )

N ( s)
2

s D( s)

Applying Parital Fraction Method :

24

G ( z ) (1 z )

G( z) 1 z
1

K3 K3

2 Terms due to non zero

s
s

poles in s domain

K3 z
K2 z

Terms due to non z 1

2
( z 1) z 1

poles in z domain

K lim GH ( z )
*
p

z 1

K3

1
K 2 1 z Terms due to non z 1

lim ( z 1)

z 1
poles in z domain

25

 0,
Thus for system types greater Kthan
Steady state error due to a Ramp input
*
p

Tz
If r (t ) Atus (t ), then R ( z ) A
( z 1) 2

Then steady state error obtained as:

Tz
A
2
(
z

1)
ess* lim e* (t ) lim 1 z 1
t
z 1
1 GH ( z )
AT
lim
z 1
( z 1) 1 GH ( z )

26

AT
e
lim ( z 1) lim( z 1) GH ( z )
*
ss

z 1

z 1

A
1
lim( z 1) GH ( z )
T
z 1

Let us define discrete ramp error

constant as:
(Velocity error
1constant)
*
K v lim( z 1) GH ( z )
T
z 1

> theness* A*
Kv

27

 For e 0
must b equal to
infinity.
For which, (z-1)GH(z) should have at least
one pole at z = 1.
Or in other words, GH(z) should have at
least
two poles at z = 1.
K v*

meaningful only if input is a ramp

function.
*
ss

*
K
, the
v

A 2
T 2 z ( z 1)
r (t ) error
t us (t ),due
then R
A
SteadyIf state
to( z )aParabolic
input
3
2
2( z 1)
28

e lim e (t ) lim 1 z
*
ss

z 1

T 2 z ( z 1)
A
3
2( z 1)
1 GH ( z )

AT 2
( z 1)
2
lim
z 1 ( z 1) 2 1 GH ( z )
2

AT
lim( z 1)
z 1
2

2
2
lim ( z 1) lim( z 1) GH ( z )
z 1

z 1

29

e
*
ss

1
2
lim( z 1) GH ( z )
2 z 1
T

Let us define the Discrete Parabolic

Error constant (acceleration error
constant)* as:1
2

Ka

T
A
*
ess *
Ka
Then
e 0 K
*
ss

lim( z 1) GH ( z )

2 z 1

*
a

For
,
should be infinity.
For which GH(z) must be at least three
30

Summary of Discrete Error constants

The steady-state error of the system at

sampling instants due to each type of
input (step, ramp and parobolic) depends
*
*
*
K p ,the
K v and
K a error constants
on
discrete
.
respectively.
*
Discrete
step-error
constant :
K p lim
GH ( z )
z 1

Discrete
ramp error constant:
1
K v* lim( z 1) GH ( z )
T
z 1

1 Parabolic
Discrete
*
2 Error constant:
K
lim( z 1) GH ( z )
a

2 z 1

31

Type
of
Syste
m

Step
Input

*
p

*
ss

Ramp Input

*
v

A
1 K *p

0
1
2
3

0
0

*
a

A
*
Kv

*
ss

*
ss

Parabolic
input

0
0

A
*
Ka

32

Stability Tests
(1) Bilinear transformation and Extended
Routh stability Criteria
(2) Jury stability Criteria
(3) Root Locus
Frequency Domain analysis:
(4) Polar Plot
(5) Nyquist stability Criteria
(6) Bode Plot (Bilinear transformation
Method)
33

 Stability of Linear Digital Control System

1) Zero-state response
Output of a discrete-data system that is due
to input only is called zero-state response;
all initial conditions are set to zero.
2) Zero-input response
Output response of a discrete-data system
that is due to the initial condition only is
called zero-input response.
When a system is subjected to both, we
apply superposition principle:
Total response =zero-state response +
zero-input response
34

3) Bounded input Bounded state stability (BIBS)

System is said to be BIBS stable, if, for any
bounded input u(k), state x(k) is also bounded.
4) Bounded input Bounded otput stability (BIBO)
System is said to be BIBO stable, if, for any
bounded input u(k), the output y(k) is also
bounded.
Since output of a system is a linear combination
of sate variables , system that is BIBS stable, is
also a BIBO stable.
Reverse may or may not be true.
If system has a pole that is cancelled by a zero,
then the system can be BIBO stable but not
necessary BIBS stable.
35

5) Zero-Input stability
System is said to be zero-input stability, if the zero-input
response y(k) , subjected to finite initial conditions,
reaches to zero, as k tend to infinity, otherwise the
system is unstable. i.e.

y (k ) M

And secondly

lim y (k ) 0

Zero-input stability implies asymptotic stability.

6) Theorem:
For linear discrete-data system, BIBO ,zero-input and
asymptotic stability, all require that root of the
characteristic equation be inside the unit circle in the z36
plane.

 Bilinear Transformation method

(Extension of use of Routh-Hurwitz criteria)
Transformation that is algebraic and transform
the unit circle in z-plane onto vertical line in a
complex variable plane (w-plane) are of following
form:
aw b

cw d

One such transformation that transform the

interior of unit circle onto
w 1left half of w-plane is:

w 1

Then Routh-Hurwitz criterion can be applied to

characteristic equation of system in w-domain in
37
normal fashion.

Jurys Stability Criterion

Given a nth order characteristic equation of a system

in z-domain

F ( z ) an z an 1 z
n

where a0 , a1 , a2 ,L
constants.

n 1

L a2 z a1 z a0 0

, an 1 , and an

are real

an

STEP-1: Check
is positive or else it can be made
positive by changing sign of all the coefficients of the
F(z)
STEP-2: Following Table is made using the coefficients
38
of the F(z)

39

 Elements in table are defined as:

a0
bk
an

an k
ak

b0 bn 1 k
ck
bn 1
bk
M
q0

P0

P3

P3

P0

; q2

P0

P1

P3

P2

40

 The necessary and sufficient condition for

polynomial F(z) to have no roots on or
outside the unit circle in z-plane are:

1) F (1) 0

0 for n even
2) F (1)
0 for n odd

And (n-1) constraints:

ao an

bo bn 1
co cn 2
M
Po P3
qo q3

41

 Singular Cases of Jury Criteria

When some or all elements in a row are
zero, tabulation end prematurely.
Such situation is known as singular case.
It
can
remedied
by
expanding
or
contracting unit circle infinitesimally.
Equivalent to moving zeros of F(z) off the
unit circle.
Transformation for this purpose is:
z 1 z , where
= very small real
0
number.
0 , radius of circle expands.

, radius of unit circle reduces.

42

 Difference between the number of zeros

found inside (or outside) the circle when
the circle is expanded or contracted by is
the number of zeroes on the circle.
1 z
Transformation zof
can be
n nas:
n
simplify

1 z 1 n z
for positive
or negative .z n
1 n
> Coefficient of the
.

term is multiplied by

43

Root Locus of Digital control system

Given the loop transfer function of a
digital control system, GH(z) or G(z)H(z),
having the variable parameter K as
multiplying factor.
Then the characteristic
become:
1 K .GH1 ( z ) equation
0
GH1 ( z )

is part of1 loop transfer

GH1not
( z ) contains

function which does

K.
K

Then loci of points which are roots of

above equation, as K varies from infinity
44

 1) Condition on Magnitude
1
GH1 ( z )
K

2) Condition on Angle
for K 0,
for K 0,

GH1 ( z ) (2k 1)
GH1 ( z ) 2k

where k 0,1, 2, 3...( any interger)

First condition is used to find the values of K

on the loci. Second one are used to find the
points on the root loci.
In the all procedure of root-locus, all the
angle are measured in the counter-clock wise
direction with positive x-axis as the reference
45

 Following are properties of the root loci in

0 Kfor

the z-plane
(useful in
sketching the root loci without solving for
the roots of the characteristics equation
as K varies.
1) Starting and Termination Points of root
loci
(a) K = 0 points (Starting points)
These points on the roots loci are at
poles
of loop transfer function. The poles
includes those at infinity. This are open
loop poles.
(b) K =
points (Termination points)
46

2) Number of separate root loci : equal to

number of poles or zeros of GH(z),
whichever is greater.
3) Symmetry: root loci are symmetrical with
respect to real-axis of z-plane.
4) root loci on real-axis:
loci are found on a given section of the
real axis of the z-plane only if the total
number of real pole and real zeros of
GH(z) to the right of the section is odd.
5) Asymptotes: For larger value of z, root
loci are (asymptotic
to the straight lines
2k 1)
k make

, where
k real
0, 1, 2,...,
(n given
m) 1. by:
which
angle
with
axis,
( n m)
47

 Where the n and m are number of finite

poles and zeros of GH(z) respectively.
Number of asymptotes = (n-m)
6) Intersection of the asymptotes :
Intersection point always lie on the real
axis of the z-plane.
the intersection point is given by:

(real part of

(real part of

poles of GH ( z )
zeros of GH ( z )
( n m)
48

7) Breakaway or Break-in Points

Either lie on real axis or occur on complex
conjugate pairs.
These points on the loci are points at which
multiple-order roots lie.
If the characteristic equation is given by:

1 F ( z) 0
B( z )
or 1 K
0
A( z )
A( z )
or K
B( z )

Then the break-away or break-in points can be

determined from the roots of following
49
equation:

 A' ( z ) B ( z ) A( z ) B ' ( z )
dK

0

2
dz
B ( z)

where the prime denotes the differentiation with

respect to z.
If root locus lies between the two adjacent open
loop poles, then there exists at least one
breakaway point between the two poles.
If root locus lies between the two adjacent open
loop zeros (one zero may be at minus infinity) ,
then there exists at least one break-in point
between the two zeros.
If root locus lies between a open loop pole and a
open loop zero, then there may exists no one
break-in or break-away point or both may exists.
50

 Then find the valve of K correspond to the

roots of equation dK/dz = 0 ,
And if resultant K is positive then the point is
an actual break-away or a break-in point.
Else the point is neither a breakaway or a
break-in points.
(8) Angle of Arrival ( or Angle of Departure)
To find the direction of root loci near the
complex poles or near complex zeros.
Angle of departure is given by:
= 180- ( sum of angle contribution of all other
poles and zeros at the concerned complex
pole, with appropriate signs included).
51

 Angle of arrival is given by:

= 180- ( sum of angle contribution of all
other poles and zeros at the concerned
complex zero, with appropriate signs
included).
Following figure shows angle of departure
calculated at a complex pole:

52

9) Points where the root loci cross the imaginary

axis
Put z = jv in the1
characteristic
K F ( jv) 0 equation:
1

Solve for v and K by equating the real and

imaginary part to zero.
The value of v gives the location at which root loci
cross the imaginary axis in the z-plane .
The value of K obtained gives the value of the
corresponding gain.
10) Intersection of root loc with the unit circle
> Particular value of z and K at an intersect of the
root loci with unit circle can be determined by
using extended Routh-Hurwitz (Bilinear
53
Transformation criteria) or by Jurys Test.

11) Values of K on the roots loci

Values of K can be obtained from the
magnitude condition
A particular point on the root loci will be
a closed pole with a particular value of
gain K.
( z p1 )( z p2 )...( z pn )
1
K

F1 ( z )
( z z1 )( z z 2 )...( z z m )
Product of length of vectors drawn from

the poles p1 , p2 ,..., pn to concerned point

Product of length of vectors drawn from

the zeros z1 , z 2 ,..., z m to concerned point 54