Scholas

ticism

Ethymology
History
Scholastic Schools
Major Scholastic
Works
Scholastic Method
Scholastic
Instruction
Figures in
Scholasticism
Six Main

What is
Scholastic
ism?

Scholasticismisamethodofcriticalthoughtwhich
dominated teaching by theacademics("scholastics," or
"schoolmen") ofmedievaluniversities in Europe from
about 1100 to 1700, and a program of employing that
method in articulating and defendingdogmain an
increasingly pluralistic context. It originated as an
outgrowthof,andadeparturefrom,Christianmonastic
schools at the earliest European universities.

ThefirstinstitutionsintheWesttobeconsidered
universitieswere established in Italy, France, Spain,
and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries
for the study ofarts,law,medicine, andtheology
,such
asScholaMedicaSalernitana,
the
UniversityofBologna, and theUniversityofParis. It
is difficult to define the date at which they became
trueuniversities,althoughthelistsofstudiageneralia
for higher education in Europe held by the
CatholicChurchanditsvariousreligiousordersarea
usefulguide.

Ethym
ology

Theterms"scholastic"and
"scholasticism"derivefrom
theLatinwordscholasticus
whichmeans"that[which]
belongstotheschool".The
"scholastics"were,roughly,
"schoolmen".

History

Early Scholasticism
Thefirstsignificantrenewaloflearninginthe
West came with theCarolingianRenaissance
of theEarlyMiddleAges. Charlemagne,
advised byPeterofPisaandAlcuinofYork,
attracted the scholars of England and Ireland.
BydecreeinAD787,heestablishedschoolsin
everyabbeyinhisempire.Theseschools,from
which the namescholasticismis derived,
becamecentersofmedievallearning.

During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had

vanished in the west except in Ireland, where its
teachingandusewaswidelydispersedinthemonastic
schoolsIrishscholarshadaconsiderablepresenceinthe
Frankishcourt, where they were renowned for their
learning.Among them wasJohannesScotusEriugena,
(815877)
one
of
the
founders
of
scholasticism.Eriugena was the most significant Irish
intellectual of the early monastic period, and an
outstanding philosopher in terms of originality.He had
considerable familiarity with the Greek language and
translated many works into Latin, affording access to
theCappadocianFathersand
the
Greektheologicaltradition .

The other three founders of scholasticism

were the 11th-century scholarsPeterAbelard,
ArchbishopLanfrancofCanterburyand
ArchbishopAnselmofCanterbury.
This period saw the beginning of the '
rediscovery'ofmanyGreekworkswhichhad
been lost to the Latin West. As early as the
10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to
gathertranslatedtextsand,inthelatterhalfof
that century, began transmitting them to the
restofEurope.

After theReconquistaof the 12th century, Spain

openedevenfurtherforChristianscholars,whowere
nowabletoworkin'friendly'religiousterritory.these
Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, they
opened a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics
andastronomy.
At the same time,AnselmofLaonsystematised the
production of theglosson Scripture, followed by the
rise to prominence ofdialectic(the middle subject of
the medievaltrivium) in the work ofAbelard.
PeterLombardproduced a collection ofSentences,or
opinionsoftheChurchFathersandotherauthorities.

High Scholasticism
The13thandearly14thcenturiesaregenerally
seen as the high period of scholasticism. The
early 13th century witnessed the culmination
of therecoveryofGreekphilosophy. Schools
of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and
eventuallyintherestofEurope.Scholarssuch
asAdelardofBathtravelled to Sicily and the
Arab world, translating works on astronomy
and mathematics, including the first complete
translationofEuclid'sElements.

Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge

fromItalyandotherareasintotheircourtsasasignof
theirprestige.WilliamofMoerbeke's translationsand
editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle
half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer
pictureofGreekphilosophy,particularlyofAristotle,
thanwasgivenbytheArabicversionsonwhichthey
had previously relied, and which had distorted or
obscured the relation between Platonic and
Aristotelian systems of philosophy. Hisworkformed
thebasisofthemajorcommentariesthatfollowed.

Universitiesdeveloped in the large cities of Europe during this

period,andrivalclericalorderswithinthechurchbegantobattle
for political and intellectual control over these centers of
educationallife.Thetwomainordersfoundedinthisperiodwere
theFranciscansand theDominicans. The Franciscans were
founded byFrancisofAssisiin 1209. Their leader in the middle
ofthecenturywasBonaventure,atraditionalistwhodefendedthe
theologyofAugustineandthephilosophyofPlato,incorporating
only a little ofAristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements.
Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only
discovertruthwhenphilosophyisilluminatedbyreligiousfaith.
Other important Franciscan scholastics wereDunsScotus,
PeterAuriolandWilliamofOckham.

By contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded

byStDominicin 1215, to propagate and defend Christian
doctrine,placedmoreemphasisontheuseofreasonandmade
extensiveuseofthenewAristoteliansourcesderivedfromthe
East and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of
DominicanthinkinginthisperiodwereAlbertusMagnusand
(especially)ThomasAquinas,whoseartfulsynthesisofGreek
rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define
Catholicphilosophy.Aquinasplacedmoreemphasisonreason
and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new
translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological
writing.ThiswasasignificantdeparturefromtheNeoplatonic
andAugustinian thinking that had dominated much of early
scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to
incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without
fallingintothe"errors"oftheCommentator,Averroes.

Late Scholasticism
Second scholasticism(orlate scholasticism)isthe
periodofrevivalofscholasticsystemofphilosophy
and theology, in the 16th and 17th centuries. The
scientificcultureofsecondscholasticismsurpassed
itsmedievalsource(Scholasticism)inthenumberof
its proponents, the breadth of its scope, the
analytical complexity, sense of historical and
literary criticism, and the volume of editorial
production, most of which remains hitherto little
explored.

Late Scholasticism
Scotism and Thomism
Unlikethe"First", i.e.medievalscholasticism,atypicalfeatureofsecond
scholasticism was the development of schools of thought, developing the
intellectual heritage of their "teacher". Two schools survived from earlier
phases of scholasticism, Scotism and Thomism. The Scotists, mostly
belonging to the various branches of the Franciscan order, include the
Italians AntoniusTrombetta, BartolomeoMastri, BonaventuraBelluto; the
FrenchmanClaudeFrassen,theIrishemigrantsLukeWadding,JohnPunch
,andHughCaughwell;andtheGermansBernhardSannigandCrescentius
Krisper.TheThomistswereusuallybutnotexclusivelyrepresentedbythe
IberiansintheDominicanandtheCarmeliteorders.TheyincludeThomas
Cajetan ( or Caietanus) , DomingodeSoto, DomingoBez, Franciscus
Ferrariensis,theComplutenses,JooPoinsotandothers.

Late Scholasticism
Jesuit scholasticism
Theintellectualinfluenceofsecondscholasticismwasaugmentedby
theestablishmentoftheSocietyofJesus(1540),byIgnatiusLoyola,
perapprovalofPopePaulIII.The"Jesuits"areconsideredathird
"school"ofsecondscholasticism,althoughthisrefersmoretothe
commonstyleofacademicworkratherthantosomecommon
doctrine.TheimportantfiguresincludePedrodaFonseca,Antonio
Rubio,theConimbricenses,RobertBellarmine,FranciscoSurez,
GabrielVsquez,PedroHurtadodeMendoza,RodrigoArriaga,and
manyothers.
Therewerealsomany"independent"thinkerslikeSebastianIzquierdo,
JuanCaramuelyLobkowicz,KenelmDigby,RaffaelAversaetc.

Late Scholasticism
Decline and legacy
ThegoldenageofSecondScholasticismwasthefirstdecadesofthe17th
century,atwhichtimeitwasstilllargelyincontrolofuniversitycurricula
inphilosophy.Butsecondscholasticismstartedtodeclineundertheattacks
ofphilosopherswritinginvernacularlanguages,suchas Descartes,Pascal
and Locke, and from the competition from more experimental and
mathematicalwaysofdoingsciencepromotedbytheScientificRevolution.
It was largely dormant from the onset of Enlightenment in the end of the
17thcentury,althoughscholasticssuchasSuarezremainedinfluentialfora
long period. In some Iberian universities the scholastic culture remained
vivid well into the 19th century, providing background for the birth of
Neo-Scholasticism.
Interestinthethoughtofthelatescholasticshasbeenrecentlyrevivedby
thejournalStudiaNeoaristotelica.

Lutheran Scholasticism
Lutheran Scholasticismwasatheological
methodthatgraduallydevelopedduringthe
era of LutheranOrthodoxy. Theologians
used the neo-Aristotelian form of
presentation, already popular in academia,
intheirwritingsandlectures.Theydefined
the Lutheran faith and defended it against
thepolemicsofopposingparties.

Lutheran Scholasticism
Lutheranism began as a vigorous protest against
scholasticism,startingwithMartinLuther.Aroundthe
time he became a monk, Luther sought assurances
aboutlife,andwasdrawntotheologyandphilosophy,
expressing particular interest in Aristotle and the
scholastics WilliamofOckham and GabrielBiel. He
wasdeeplyinfluencedbytwotutors, Bartholomaeus
Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who
taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest
thinkers,andtotesteverythinghimselfbyexperience.

Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering

assurance about the use of reason, but none about
the importance, for Luther, of loving God. Reason
couldnotleadmentoGod,hefelt,andhedeveloped
a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the
latter'semphasisonreason.ForLuther,reasoncould
be used to question men and institutions, but not
God. Human beings could learn about God only
throughdivinerevelation,hebelieved,andScripture
thereforebecameincreasinglyimportanttohim.

Martin Luther held that it was "not at all in conformity

with the New Testament to write books about Christian
doctrine."HenotedthatbeforetheApostleswrotebooks,they
"previously preached to and converted the people with the
physical voice, which was also their real apostolic and New
Testamentwork."ToLuther,itwasnecessarytowritebooksto
counterallthefalseteachersanderrorsofthepresentday,but
writing books on Christian teaching came at a price. "But
since it became necessary to write books, there is already a
greatloss,andthereisuncertaintyastowhatismeant."Martin
Luther taught preaching and lectured upon the
booksoftheBibleinanexegeticalmanner.ToLuther,St.Paul
was the greatest of all systematictheologians, and his
EpistletotheRomans was the greatest dogmaticstextbook of
alltime.

Analysis of Luther's works, however,

reveals a reliance on scholastic distinctions
and modes of argument even after he had
dismissedscholasticismentirely.Lutherseems
to be comfortable with the use of such
theological methods so long as the content of
theology is normed by scripture, though his
direct statements regarding scholastic method
areunequivocallynegative.

Reformed Scholasticism
Reformed Scholasticism was academictheology practiced by
Reformedtheologians using the scholasticmethod during the
period of Protestant orthodoxy (16th to 18th centuries).While the
Reformed often used "scholastic" as a term of derision for their
RomanCatholic opponentsand thecontentoftheirtheology,most
Reformed theologians during this period can properly be called
scholasticswithrespecttothemethodoftheology,thoughtheyalso
usedothermethods.J.V.Feskodescribesscholasticisminthissense
as"amethodofdoingtheologythatsetsouttoachievetheological
precisionthroughtheexegesisofScripture,anexaminationofhow
doctrine has been historically defined throughout church history,
andhowdoctrineisexpoundedincontemporarydebate."

Continuity in Reformed theology

In the past, scholars described the theology of Protestant
scholastics following JohnCalvin as more rationalistic
and philosophical than the more exegetical
biblicaltheology of John Calvin and other early
Reformers. This is commonly described as the "Calvin
againsttheCalvinists"paradigm.Beginninginthe1980s,
RichardMuller and other scholars in the field provided
extensiveevidenceshowingboththattheearlyReformers
were deeply influenced by scholasticism and that later
Reformed scholasticism was deeply exegetical, using the
scholastic method to organize and explicate exegetical
theology.

Neo-Scholasticism
Neo-Scholasticism (also known as
neo-scholastic Thomism or neo-Thomism
because of the great influence of the writings
ofSt.ThomasAquinasonthemovement),isa
revival and development of medieval
scholasticisminRomanCatholictheologyand
philosophy which began inthesecondhalfof
the19thcentury.

Neo-Scholasticism
During the medieval period, scholasticism became the
standard accepted method of philosophy and theology. The
Scholastic method declined with the advent of humanism in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries after which time it came
to be viewed by some as rigid, formalistic. "Scholastic
philosophy did not, however, completely disappear. An
important movement of Thomistic revival took place during
the sixteenth century and enriched Scholastic literature with
many eminent contributions. ThomasdeVioCajetan (1469
1534), Vasquez (15511604), Toletus (15321596), Fonseca
(15281599), and especially Suarez (15481617), were
profound thinkers, worthy of the great masters whose
principlestheyhadadopted."

Moreover, as J. A. Weisheipl O.P. emphasizes, within the

DominicanOrder Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous
since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the
Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the
Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic
occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters,
beginning after the death of St. Thomas, as well as the
ConstitutionsoftheOrder,requiredallDominicanstoteachthe
doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology."A
furtherideaofthelongstandinghistoriccontinuityofDominican
scholasticism and neo scholasticism may be derived from the
listofpeopleassociatedwiththePontificalUniversityofSt.T
homasAquinas
.

Thomistic Scholasticism
As J. A. WeisheiplO.P.emphasizes, within the
DominicanOrderThomistic scholasticism has been
continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was
always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was
after the ravages of the Reformation, the French
Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated
legislationoftheGeneralChapters,beginningafterthe
deathofSt.Thomas,aswellastheConstitutionsofthe
Order,requiredallDominicanstoteachthedoctrineof
St.Thomasbothinphilosophyandintheology."

Thomistic scholasticism or scholasticThomism

identifies with the philosophical and theological
traditionstretchingbacktothetimeofSt.Thomas.It
focuses not only on exegesis of the historical
Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous
system of orthodox Thomism to be used as an
instrumentofcritiqueofcontemporarythought.Due
to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas
with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions
Scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called
"StrictObservanceThomism."

AdiscussionofrecentandcurrentThomisticscholasticismcan
be found inLa Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino e i suoi
interpreti(2002) by Battista Mondin,which includes such
figures as Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908-1990)CornelioFabro
(1911-1995), Carlo Giacon (1900-1984),TomasTynO.P.
(1950-1990), Abelardo LobatoO.P.(1925-2012), Leo
Elders(1926- ) andGiovanniVentimiglia(1964- ) among
others. Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality,
especially with respect to theactus essendior act of existence
of finite beings by participating in being itself. Other scholars
such as those involved with the "Progetto Tommaso"seek to
establishanobjectiveanduniversalreadingofAquinas'texts.

Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went

intodeclineinthe1970swhentheThomisticrevivalthathad
been spearheaded byJacquesMaritain,tienneGilson, and
others,diminishedininfluence.Partly,thiswasbecausethis
branch ofThomismhad become a quest to understand the
historical Aquinas after theSecondVaticanCouncil. Still,
those who had learned Scholastic philosophy continued to
have unresolved questions about how the insights of the
medieval synthesis could be applied to contemporary
problems. This conversation departed from the academic
environment and entered internet discussion groups such as
Aquinas,Christian Philosophy,and Thomism,and websites
suchasOpenPhilosophy,whereitcontinuestoday.

Analytical Scholasticism
Arenewedinterestinthe"scholastic"wayofdoing
philosophy has recently awoken in the confines of
theanalyticphilosophy. Attempts emerged to
combine elements of scholastic and analytic
methodology in pursuit of a contemporary
philosophical synthesis. Proponents of various
incarnations
of
this
approach
include
AnthonyKenny,PeterKing, Thomas Williams or
DavidOderberg.AnalyticalThomismcan be seen
asapioneerpartofthismovement.

Schol
astic
Schoo
ls

Scholastic Schools

Thomism
Scotism
Occamism
Averroism
Avicennism

Scholastic Schools
Thomismisthephilosophicalschoolthataroseasalegacyof
the work and thought of Saint ThomasAquinas (12251274),
philosopher, theologian, and DoctoroftheChurch. In
philosophy, his disputedquestionsandcommentaries on
Aristotleareperhapshismostwell-knownworks.Intheology,
hisSumma Theologicaisoneofthemostinfluentialdocuments
in medievaltheology and continues to be the central point of
reference for the philosophy and theology of the
CatholicChurch. In the encyclical Doctoris Angelici
PopePiusXcautionedthattheteachingsoftheChurchcannot
be understood without the basic philosophical underpinnings
ofThomas'majortheses:

Scholastic Schools
Scotismisthenamegiventothephilosophicalandtheological
system or school named after Blessed JohnDunsScotus. The
word comes from the name of its originator, whose Opus
Oxoniense was one of the most important documents in
medievalphilosophy and RomanCatholictheology, defining
what would later be declared the Dogma of the
Immaculateconception by PopePiusIX in his constitution
Ineffabilis Deus on 8 December 1854. Scotism developed out
of the OldFranciscanSchool, which dominated theology
during the MiddleAges. This school of thought initially
followedAugustinismwhichdominatedtheologyatthetime.

Scholastic Schools
Occamism. In scholasticism, Ockham advocated for a reform
both in method and in content, the aim of which was
simplification. Ockham incorporated much of the work of
someprevioustheologians,especiallyJohnDunsScotus.From
Scotus, Ockham derived his view of divine omnipotence, his
viewofgraceandjustification,muchofhisepistemologyand
ethical convictions. However, he also reacted to and against
Scotus in the areas of predestination, penance, his
understandingofuniversals,hisformaldistinction ex parte rei
(that is, "as applied to created things"), and his view of
parsimonywhichbecameknownasOccam'sRazor.

Scholastic Schools
Averroism is a school of Islamicphilosophy that arose
from the influence of the twelfth century Al-Andalus
MuslimphilosopherAverros,whoworkedonreconciling
Aristotelianism with Islam. Alternatively, the term
Averroism may refer to the application of these ideas by
thirteenth-century scholastic philosophers in the
LatinChristian and Jewish intellectual traditions, such as
SigerofBrabant, BoetiusofDacia and Maimonides. The
term was used by the theologian ThomasAquinas in a
restricted sense to mean monopsychism and radical
Aristotelianism.

LatintranslationsofAverroes'workbecame
widelyavailableattheuniversitieswhichwere
springing up in WesternEurope in the
thirteenthcentury.Hisworkandcommentaries
on Aristotle were responsible for the
development of scholasticism, a school of
thought of Christianity which examined
Christian doctrines through reasoning and
intellectualanalysis.Scholasticismmarkedthe
goldenageofphilosophyinmedievalEurope.

Scholastic Schools
Avicennism is a school in IslamicPhilosophy which is
established by Avicenna. According to HenryCorbin and
SeyyedHosseinNasr there are two kind of Avicennism:
Islamic or Iranian Avicennism, and Latin Avicennism.
According to Nasr, the Latin Avicennism was based on the
formerphilosophicalworksofAvicenna.Thisschoolfollowed
the Peripateticschool of philosophy and tried to describe the
structure of reality with a rational system of thinking. In the
twelfth century AD, It became influential in Europe,
particularly in Oxford and Paris and affected some notable
philosopherssuchasThomasAquinas,RogerBaconandDons
Scotus.

While the Latin Avicennism was weak in

comparison with Latin Averroism, according to
tienneGilson there was a "Avicennising
Augustinism". On the other hand, Islamic
Avicennism is based on his later works which is
knownas"Theorientalphilosophy"().
Therefore, philosophy in the eastern Islamic
civilization providing became close to Gnosis and
tried to provide a vision of spiritual universe. This
approach paved the road for the Iranianschoolof
Illuminationism()bySuhrawardi.

Major
Schol
astic
Works

Major
Scholastic
Works
SummaTheologica
SummaLogicae
OpusOxoniense
LibriQuattor
Sententiarum

Major Scholastic Works

Summa Theologi (written 12651274 and also known as
the Summa Theologica or simply the Summa) is the bestknown work of ThomasAquinas (c. 12251274). Although
unfinished,theSummais"oneoftheclassicsofthehistoryof
philosophyandoneofthemostinfluentialworksofWestern
literature."It was intended as an instructional guide for
theologystudents,includingseminariansandtheliteratelaity.
Itwasacompendiumofallofthemaintheologicalteachings
of the CatholicChurch. It presents the reasoning for almost
all points of Christian theology in the West. The Summa's
topics follow a cycle: the existenceofGod; Creation, Man;
Man'spurpose;Christ;theSacraments;andbacktoGod.

Major Scholastic Works

TheSumma Logicae("SumofLogic")isatextbookon
logicbyWilliamofOckham.Itwaswrittenaround1323.
Systematically, it resembles other works of medieval
logic, organised under the basic headings of the
AristotelianPredicables,Categories,terms,propositions,
andsyllogisms.Theseheadings,thoughoftengivenina
different order, represent the basic arrangement of
scholasticworksonlogic.Thisworkisimportantinthat
itcontainsthemainaccountofOckham's nominalism,a
positionrelatedtotheproblemofuniversals.

Major Scholastic Works

Opus oxoniense.Scotusgreatworkishiscommentaryonthe
Sentences of PeterLombard, which contains nearly all the
philosophical views and arguments for which he is well
known,includingtheunivocityofbeing,theformaldistinction
, less-than-numerical unity, individual nature or thisness' (
haecceity), his critique of illuminationism and his renowned
argument for the existenceofGod. His commentary exists in
several versions. The standard version is the Ordinatio (also
knownastheOpus oxoniense),arevisedversionoflectureshe
gave as a bachelor at Oxford. It was still incomplete when
Scotus left for Paris in 1302. The original lectures were also
transcribedandrecentlypublishedastheLectura.

Major Scholastic Works

The Four Books of Sentences(Libri Quattuor Sententiarum)is
abookoftheologywrittenbyPeterLombardinthe12thcentury.It
is a systematic compilation of theology, written around 1150; it
derivesitsnamefromthe sententiaeorauthoritativestatementson
biblical passages that it gathered together. The Book of Sentences
haditsprecursorintheglosses(anexplanationorinterpretationofa
text,suchas,e.g.theCorpus Iuris Civilisorbiblical)bythemasters
wholecturedusingSaintJerome'sLatintranslationoftheBible(the
Vulgate).Aglossmightconcernsyntaxorgrammar,oritmightbe
on some difficult point of doctrine. These glosses, however, were
not continuous, rather being placed between the lines or in the
marginsofthebiblicaltextitself.

Schol
astic
Metho
d

Scholastic Method
Medievalschoolsoftheologyusedmethodsof
instructionknownas lectio-meditatio-quaestio
anddisputationes.Inthefirstmethod,teachers
would first read an authoritative text with
some commentary (lectio), allow students to
consider the text silently (meditatio), and
finallythestudentswouldaskquestionsofthe
teachertogetatthemeaning(quaestio).

Scholastic Method
The scholastics would choose a book by a renowned
scholar,auctor(author), as a subject for investigation.
By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples
learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other
documents related to the book would be referenced,
suchasChurchcouncils,papallettersandanythingelse
written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary.
The points of disagreement and contention between
multiple sources would be written down in individual
sentencesorsnippetsoftext,knownassententiae.

Scholastic Method
Oncethesourcesandpointsofdisagreementhadbeen
laidoutthroughaseriesofdialectics,thetwosidesof
anargumentwouldbemadewholesothattheywould
befoundtobeinagreementandnotcontradictory.This
wasdoneintwoways.
The first was throughphilologicalanalysis. Words
wereexaminedandarguedtohavemultiplemeanings.
It was also considered that the auctor might have
intendedacertainwordtomeansomethingdifferent.
Thesecondwasthroughlogicalanalysis,whichrelied
ontherulesofformallogictoshowthatcontradictions
didnotexistbutweresubjectivetothereader.

Schol
astic
Instru
ction

Scholastic Instruction
Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first
was thelectio: a teacher would read an authoritative text
followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted.
This was followed by themeditatio(meditationor reflection)
in which students reflected on and appropriated the text.
Finally, in thequaestiostudents could ask questions
(quaestiones) that might have occurred to them
duringmeditatio.
Eventually
the
discussion
ofquestionesbecame a method of inquiry apart from
thelectioand
independent
of
authoritative
texts.Disputationeswere
arranged
to
resolve
controversialquaestiones.

Scholastic Instruction
Questionstobedisputedwereordinarilyannounced
beforehand,but students could propose a question
to the teacher unannounced disputationes de
quodlibet. In this case, the teacher responded and
the students rebutted;on the following day the
teacher, having used notes taken during the
disputation, summarised all arguments and
presentedhisfinalposition,ripostingallrebuttals.

Scholastic Instruction
Thequaestiomethod of reasoning was initially used
especially when two authoritative texts seemed to
contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions
wouldbeconsideredintheformofaneither/orquestion,
andeachpartofthequestionwouldhavetobeapproved
(sic) or denied (non). Arguments for the position taken
would be presented in turn, followed by arguments
against the position, and finally the arguments against
would be refuted. This method forced scholars to
consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own
argumentsagainstthem.

Figures
in
Scholasticism

St. Thomas Aquinas

Tommasod'Aquino,OP,alsoknownasSaintThomasAquinas,
isaDoctoroftheChurch.HewasanItalianDominicanfriar
andRomanCatholicpriest,whowasanimmenselyinfluential
philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of
scholasticism.

Born:1225,Roccasecca,Italy
Died:March7,1274,FossanovaAbbey,Italy

To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To one

without faith, no explanation is possible.
There is nothing on this earth more to be prized than true
friendship.
Friendship is the source of the greatest pleasures, and without
friends even the most agreeable pursuits become tedious.

He was the foremost classical proponent of naturaltheology

andthefatherofThomism.HisinfluenceonWesternthoughtis
considerable, and much of modernphilosophy developed or
opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics,
naturallaw, metaphysics, and political theory. Unlike many
currents in the Church of the time, Thomas embraced several
ideas put forward by Aristotlewhom he called "the
Philosopher"and
attempted
to
synthesize
AristotelianphilosophywiththeprinciplesofChristianity. The
works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae
and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Sacred
ScriptureandonAristotleformanimportantpartofhisbodyof
work.Furthermore,Thomasisdistinguishedforhiseucharistic
hymns,whichformapartoftheChurch'sliturgy.

TheCatholicChurchhonorsThomasAquinasasasaint
andregardshimasthemodelteacherforthosestudying
forthepriesthood,andindeedthehighestexpressionof
bothnaturalreasonandspeculativetheology.Inmodern
times, under papal directives, the study of his works
was long used as a core of the required program of
studyforthoseseekingordinationaspriestsordeacons,
aswellasforthoseinreligiousformationandforother
studentsofthesacreddisciplines(philosophy,Catholic
theology,churchhistory,liturgy,andcanonlaw).

Duns Scotus
Philosopher
John Duns, commonly called Duns
Scotus, is generally considered to be
one of the three most important
philosopher-theologians of the High
Middle Ages. Scotus has had
considerable influence on both
Catholicandsecularthought.
Born:1265,Duns,UnitedKingdom
Died:
November
8,
1308,
Cologne,Germany

John Duns Scotus was one of the most important and

influential philosopher-theologians of the High Middle Ages.
His brilliantly complex and nuanced thought, which earned
him the nickname the Subtle Doctor, left a mark on
discussions of such disparate topics as the semantics of
religious language, the problem of universals, divine
illumination,andthenatureofhumanfreedom.Thisessayfirst
laysoutwhatisknownaboutScotus'slifeandthedatingofhis
works.Itthenoffersanoverviewofsomeofhiskeypositions
in four main areas of philosophy: natural theology,
metaphysics, the theory of knowledge, and ethics and moral
psychology.

William of Ockham
Philosopher
WilliamofOckhamwasanEnglish
Franciscanfriarandscholasticphilosopher
andtheologian,whoisbelievedtohave
beenborninOckham,asmallvillagein
Surrey.
Born:1285,Ockham,UnitedKingdom
Died:1347,Munich,Germany
Influenced:JohnWycliffe,WillardVan
OrmanQuine
Schoolsofthought:Scholasticism

William of Ockham is, along with Thomas Aquinas and

John Duns Scotus, among the most prominent figures in
the history of philosophy during the High Middle Ages.
He is probably best known today for his espousal of
metaphysical nominalism; indeed, the methodological
principleknownasOckham'sRazorisnamedafterhim.
But Ockham held important, often influential views not
only in metaphysics but also in all other major areas of
medieval philosophylogic, physics or natural
philosophy, theory of knowledge, ethics, and political
philosophyaswellasintheology.

Francisco Surez
Philosopher
Francisco Surez was a Spanish Jesuit
priest,philosopherandtheologian,oneof
the leading figures of the School of
Salamanca movement, and generally
regarded among the greatest scholastics
afterThomasAquinas.
Born:January5,1548,Granada,Spain
Died:
September
25,
1617,
Lisbon,Portugal
Education:UniversityofSalamanca

Francisco Surez was a highly influential philosopher and

theologian of the Second Scholastic (or Early Modern
Scholasticism), that is, the revitalized philosophical and
theologicalinquiryofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,
conducted within the tradition shaped by Thomas Aquinas,
Duns Scotus, and other medieval scholastics.While Surez is
commonly praised for his comprehensive, exhaustive, and
systematic exposition of more or less everything known in
philosophy up to his time (certainly, at any rate, in
metaphysics), his achievement in this regard should not be
permitted to overshadow the depth, power, and originality of
hisownideas.

Averroes
Philosopher
Ibn Rushd, full name Ab l-Wald
Muh a mmad Ibn Ah m
ad Ibn Rud,
often Latinized as Averroes, is a
medievalAndalusianpolymath.
Born:April14,1126,Crdoba,Spain
Died:
December
10,
1198,
Marrakesh,Morocco
Schoolsofthought:Averroism

Averroes,livedduringauniqueperiodinWesternintellectual
history, in which interest in philosophy and theology was
waningintheMuslimworldandjustbeginningtoflourishin
LatinChristendom.Hisinfluentialcommentariesandunique
interpretationsonAristotlerevivedWesternscholarlyinterest
in ancientGreekphilosophy, whose works for the most part
had been neglected since the sixth century. He critically
examined the alleged tension between philosophy and
religioninthe Decisive Treatise, andhechallengedtheantiphilosophical sentiments within the Sunni tradition sparked
byal-Ghazzali.Thiscritiqueignitedasimilarre-examination
within the Christian tradition, influencing a line of scholars
whowouldcometobeidentifiedastheAverroists.

Avicenna

Writer
Avicenna was a Persian polymath who is regarded as
one of the most significant thinkers and writers of the
IslamicGoldenAge.Ofthe450worksheisknownto
havewritten,around240 have survived,including150
onphilosophyand40onmedicine.
Born:August980AD,BukharaRegion,Uzbekistan
Died:June1037,Hamadan,Iran
Quotes
The world is divided into men who have wit and no
religion and men who have religion and no wit.
Therefore in medicine we ought to know the causes of
sickness and health.
That whose existence is necessary must necessarily be
one essence.

He is probably the most significant philosopher

in the Islamic tradition and arguably the most
influential philosopher of the pre-modern era.
Born in Afshana near Bukhara in Central Asia in
about 980, he is best known as a polymath, as
a physician whose major work the Canon (alQanun fil-Tibb) continued to be taught as a
medical textbook in Europe and in the Islamic
world until the early modern period, and as a
philosopher whose major summa the Cure (alShifa) had a decisive impact upon European
scholasticism
and
especially
upon
Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274).

Albertus Magnus
Saint
AlbertusMagnusO.P.,alsoknownas
AlberttheGreatandAlbertofCologne,
isaCatholicsaint.HewasaGerman
DominicanfriarandaCatholicbishop.
Born:1206,Lauingen,Germany
Died:November15,1280,
Cologne,Germany
Discovered:Arsenic

Albertus Magnus, was one of the most universal

thinkers to appear during the MiddleAges. Even more
so than his most famous student, St. Thomas of
Aquinas,Albert's interests ranged from natural science
allthewaytotheology.Hemadecontributionstologic,
psychology,metaphysics,meteorology,mineralogy,and
zoology.Hewasanavidcommentatoronnearlyallthe
great authorities read during the 13 th Century. He was
deeplyinvolvedinanattempttounderstandtheimport
ofthethoughtofAristotleinsomeorderlyfashionthat
was distinct from the Arab commentators who had
incorporatedtheirownideasintothestudyofAristotle.

Peter Lombard
Author
PeterLombard,PetertheLombard,
Pierre Lombard or Petrus
Lombardus, was a scholastic
theologian, Bishop of Paris, and
authorofFourBooksofSentences,
which became the standard
textbookoftheology,...
Born:1100,Lumellogno,Italy
Died:1160,Paris,France
Books:Sentences

PeterLombard,ascholastictheologianofthetwelfthcentury,
wascommonlyknownas"theLombard".InParis,Petertaught
theology in the cathedral school of Notre Dame, and it was
therehefoundthetimetoproducetheworksdiscussedlaterin
this article. Their dates can be only approximately fixed. The
most famous of them, theLibri quatuor sententiarum , was
probably composed between 1147 and 1150, although it may
be placed as late as 1155. Nothing is certainly known of his
later life except that be became bishop of Paris in 1159.
According to Walter of St. Victor, a hostile witness, Peter
obtained the office by simony; the more usual story is that
Philip,youngerbrotherofLouisVII.andarchdeaconofParis,
waselectedbutdeclinedinfavorofPeter,histeacher.

Bonaventure
Philosopher
Saint Bonaventure, born Giovanni di
Fidanza, was an Italian medieval
Franciscan, scholastic theologian and
philosopher. The seventh Minister General
oftheOrderofFriarsMinor,hewasalsoa
CardinalBishopofAlbano.
Born:1221,Bagnoregio,Italy
Died:July15,1274,Lyon,France
Education:UniversityofParis
Parents:GiovannidiFidanza,MariaRitella

Bonaventureheldthatphilosophyopensthemindtoatleast
three different routes humans can take on their journey to
God. Non-intellectual material creatures he conceived as
shadows and vestiges (literally, footprints) of God,
understood as the ultimate cause of a world philosophical
reason can prove was created at a first moment in time.
Intellectual creatures he conceived of as images and
likenessesofGod,theworkingsofthehumanmindandwill
leading us to God understood as illuminator of knowledge
anddonorofgraceandvirtue.ThefinalroutetoGodisthe
route of being, in which Bonaventure brought Anselm's
argument together with Aristotelian and Neoplatonic
metaphysics to view God as the absolutely perfect being
whose essence entails its existence, an absolutely simple
beingthatcausesallother,compositebeingstoexist.

Anselm of Canterbury
Saint
Saint Anselm of Canterbury, also called
AnselmofAostaafterhisbirthplaceand
Anselm of Bec after his monastery, was
a Benedictine monk, abbot, philosopher
andtheologianoftheCatholicChurch
Born:1033,Aosta,Italy
Died:April21,1109,
Diocese
ofCanterbury,CityofCanterbury,Unit
edKingdom
Predecessor:Lanfranc
Successor:Ralphd'Escures

Saint Anselm was one of the most important Christian

thinkers of the eleventh century. He is most famous in
philosophyforhavingdiscoveredandarticulatedtheso-called
ontologicalargument; and in theology for his doctrine of
the atonement. However, his work extends to many other
importantphilosophicalandtheologicalmatters,amongwhich
are: understanding the aspects and the unity of the divine
nature; the extent of our possible knowledge and
understandingofthedivinenature;thecomplexnatureofthe
will and its involvement in free choice; the interworkings of
human willing and action and divine grace; the natures of
truthandjustice;thenaturesandoriginsofvirtuesandvices;
the nature of evilas negationor privation;and thecondition
andimplicationsoforiginalsin.

Peter
Abelard

Philosopher
Peter Abelard was a medieval French
scholastic philosopher, theologian and
preeminentlogician.Hisaffairwithand
love for Hlose d'Argenteuil has
becomelegendary.

Born:1079,LePallet,France
Died:April21,1142, Chalon-sur-Sane
,France
Spouse:Helose

PeterAbelardwasthepreeminentphilosopherofthe
twelfth century and perhaps the greatest logician of
the middle ages. During his life he was equally
famous as a poet and a composer, and might also
haverankedasthepreeminenttheologianofhisday
had his ideas earned more converts and less
condemnation. In all areas Abelard was brilliant,
innovative, and controversial. He was a genius. He
knewit,andmadenoapologies.Hisvastknowledge,
wit,charm,andevenarrogancedrewagenerationof
Europe'sfinestmindstoParistolearnfromhim.

Six Main
Characteristics
of
Scholasticism

Six Main
Characteristics of
Scholasticism
AnacceptanceoftheprevailingCatholic

orthodoxy.
Withinthisorthodoxy,anacceptanceof
Aristotleasagreater thinkerthanPlato.
TherecognitionthatAristotleandPlato
disagreedaboutthenotionofuniversals,and
thatthiswasavitalquestiontoresolve.

 Givingprominencetodialectical
thinkingandsyllogistic reasoning.
Anacceptanceofthedistinction
between"natural"and"revealed"theology.
Atendencytodispute everythingatgreat
lengthandinminute detail,ofteninvolving
word-play.

Prepared by:
Ms. Cherryl G. Marigocio
Ms. Lenilyn D. Aganan