EEE 498/598

Overview of Electrical
Engineering
Lecture 3:
Electrostatics: Electrostatic
Potential; Charge Dipole;
Visualization of Electric Fields;
Potentials; Gauss’s Law and
Applications; Conductors and
Conduction 1 Current
 Lecture 3 Objectives
 To continue our study of
electrostatics with electrostatic
potential; charge dipole;
visualization of electric fields and
potentials; Gauss’s law and
applications; conductors and
conduction current.

Lecture 3
2
Electrostatic Potential of
a Point Charge at the
r Origin r
Q
V ( r ) = − ∫ E ⋅ d l = − ∫ aˆ r ⋅ aˆ r dr ′
4π ε0 ( r ′)
2
∞ ∞
∞
Q dr ′ Q
= ∫
4π ε0 r ( r ′) 2
=
4π ε0 r
P

r
spherically symmetric

Q
Lecture 3
3
Electrostatic Potential
Resulting from Multiple
Point Charges
R2
Q2 P(R,θ ,φ )

r′2 r R1
Q1
n
r ′1 Qk
V (r) = ∑
k =1 4π ε
0 Rk
O

No longer spherically symmetric!

Lecture 3
4
 Electrostatic Potential
Resulting from Continuous
Charge Distributions

1 qel ( r ′) dl ′
V (r) =
4π ε0 L∫′
⇐ line charge
R
1 qes ( r ′) ds′
V (r) = ∫ ⇐ surface charge
4π ε0 S ′ R
1 qev ( r ′) dv′
V (r) = ∫ ⇐ volume charge
4π ε0 V ′ R
Lecture 3
5
 Charge Dipole
 An electric charge dipole consists of a pair of equal and opposite point
charges separated by a small distance (i.e., much smaller than the
distance at which we observe the resulting field).

+Q -Q

Lecture 3
6
 Dipole Moment
• Dipole moment p is a measure of the strength
of the dipole and indicates its direction

+Q
p = Qd
d
p is in the direction from
the negative point charge
to the positive point
-Q charge

Lecture 3
7
Electrostatic Potential
Due to Charge Dipole
P
observation
z point
R+
+Q
r R−
d/2 p = aˆ z Qd
d/2
θ
-Q
Lecture 3
8
 Electrostatic Potential
Due to Charge Dipole
(Cont’d)

Q Q
V ( r ) = V ( r ,θ ) = −
4π ε0 R+ 4π ε0 R−

cylindrical symmetry

Lecture 3
9
Electrostatic Potential
Due to Charge Dipole
(Cont’d)
P
R+
r
d/2 θ
R−

d/2 R+ = r + (d / 2) − rd cos θ
2 2

R− = r + (d / 2) + rd cos θ
2 2

Lecture 3
10
 Electrostatic Potential
Due to Charge Dipole in
the Far-Field
• assume R>>d

• zeroth order approximation:

not good
R+ ≈ R enough!
V ≈0
R− ≈ R

Lecture 3
11
 Electrostatic Potential Due
to Charge Dipole in the Far-
Field (Cont’d)
• first order approximation from geometry:
R+ d
R+ ≈ r − cos θ
2
θ r d
d/2 R− ≈ r + cos θ
R−
2
d/2 lines approximately
parallel
Lecture 3
12
 Electrostatic Potential Due
to Charge Dipole in the Far-
Field (Cont’d)
• Taylor series approximation:
−1 −1
1  d  1 d 
= r − cos θ  = 1 − cos θ 
R+  2  r  2r 
1 d 
≈ 1 + cos θ 
r  2r  Recall :
(1 + x ) n ≈ 1 + nx, x << 1
1 1 d 
≈ 1 − cos θ 
R− r  2r 
Lecture 3
13
Electrostatic Potential Due to
Charge Dipole in the Far-Field
(Cont’d)

Q  d cos θ   d cos θ 
V ( r ,θ ) ≈ 1 +  − 1 − 
4π ε0 r  2r   2r  
Qd cos θ
=
4π ε0 r 2

Lecture 3
14
Electrostatic Potential Due to
Charge Dipole in the Far-Field
(Cont’d)

• In terms of the dipole moment:

1 p ⋅ aˆ r
V≈
4π ε0 r 2

Lecture 3
15
Electric Field of Charge
Dipole in the Far-Field

 ∂V 1 ∂V 
E = −∇ V = − aˆ r + aˆθ 
 ∂r r ∂θ 
Qd
≈ [ ˆ
a r 2 cos θ + ˆ
a θ sin θ ]
4π ε0 r 3

Lecture 3
16
Visualization of Electric
Fields
 An electric field (like any vector field) can be
visualized using flux lines (also called
streamlines or lines of force).
 A flux line is drawn such that it is everywhere
tangent to the electric field.
 A quiver plot is a plot of the field lines
constructed by making a grid of points. An
arrow whose tail is connected to the point
indicates the direction and magnitude of the
field at that point.

Lecture 3
17
Visualization of Electric
Potentials
 The scalar electric potential can be
visualized using equipotential surfaces.
 An equipotential surface is a surface over which
V is a constant.
 Because the electric field is the negative of
the gradient of the electric scalar potential,
the electric field lines are everywhere
normal to the equipotential surfaces and
point in the direction of decreasing potential.

Lecture 3
18
 Visualization of Electric
Fields
 Flux lines are suggestive of the flow of some fluid
emanating from positive charges (source) and terminating
at negative charges (sink).
 Although electric field lines do NOT represent fluid flow,
it is useful to think of them as describing the flux of
something that, like fluid flow, is conserved.

Lecture 3
19
Faraday’s Experiment
charged sphere
(+Q)
+

+ + metal

+ insulator

Lecture 3
20
 Faraday’s Experiment
(Cont’d)
 Two concentric conducting spheres are separated
by an insulating material.
 The inner sphere is charged to +Q. The outer
sphere is initially uncharged.
 The outer sphere is grounded momentarily.
 The charge on the outer sphere is found to be -Q.

Lecture 3
21
 Faraday’s Experiment
(Cont’d)
 Faraday concluded there was a “displacement”
from the charge on the inner sphere through the
inner sphere through the insulator to the outer
sphere.
 The electric displacement (or electric flux) is equal in
magnitude to the charge that produces it,
independent of the insulating material and the
size of the spheres.

Lecture 3
22
Electric Displacement
(Electric Flux)

+Q

-Q

Lecture 3
23
 Electric (Displacement)
Flux Density
 The density of electric displacement is the electric
(displacement) flux density, D.
 In free space the relationship between flux density and
electric field is

D = ε0 E

Lecture 3
24
 Electric (Displacement)
Flux Density (Cont’d)
 The electric (displacement) flux
density for a point charge centered at
the origin is

Q
D = aˆ r
4π r 2

Lecture 3
25
 Gauss’s Law
 Gauss’s law states that “the net electric flux
emanating from a close surface S is equal to the total
charge contained within the volume V bounded by
that surface.”

∫
S
D ⋅ d s = Qencl

Lecture 3
26
Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)

S By convention, ds
ds
is taken to be outward
V from the volume V.

Since volume charge

density is the most
Qencl = ∫ qev dv general, we can always write
V Qencl in this way.

Lecture 3
27
 Applications of Gauss’s
Law
 Gauss’s law is an integral equation for the
unknown electric flux density resulting
from a given charge distribution.

known
∫
S
D ⋅ d s = Qencl
unknown

Lecture 3
28
 Applications of Gauss’s
Law (Cont’d)
 In general, solutions to integral
equations must be obtained using
numerical techniques.
 However, for certain symmetric
charge distributions closed form
solutions to Gauss’s law can be
obtained.

Lecture 3
29
 Applications of Gauss’s
Law (Cont’d)
 Closed form solution to Gauss’s
law relies on our ability to
construct a suitable family of
Gaussian surfaces.
 A Gaussian surface is a surface to
which the electric flux density is
normal and over which equal to a
constant value.
Lecture 3
30
Electric Flux Density of a
Point Charge Using
Gauss’s Law
Consider a point charge at the origin:

Lecture 3
31
 Electric Flux Density of a
Point Charge Using Gauss’s
Law (Cont’d)
(1) Assume from symmetry the form of
the field
D = aˆ r Dr ( r )
spherical
symmetry

(2) Construct a family of Gaussian

spheres of radius r where
surfaces
0≤r ≤∞
Lecture 3
32
 Electric Flux Density of a
Point Charge Using Gauss’s
Law (Cont’d)
(3) Evaluate the total charge within the volume
enclosed by each Gaussian surface

Qencl = ∫ qev dv
V

Lecture 3
33
 Electric Flux Density of a
Point Charge Using Gauss’s
Law (Cont’d)

Gaussian surface

Qencl = Q

Lecture 3
34
 Electric Flux Density of a
Point Charge Using Gauss’s
Law (Cont’d)
(4) For each Gaussian surface, evaluate the integral

∫ D ⋅ d s = DS
S
surface area
of Gaussian
surface.
magnitude of D
on Gaussian
surface.

∫ D ⋅ d s = D (r) 4π r 2
r
S
Lecture 3
35
 Electric Flux Density of a
Point Charge Using Gauss’s
Law (Cont’d)
(5) Solve for D on each Gaussian surface

Qencl
D=
S

Q D Q
D = aˆ r ⇒ E= = aˆ r
4π r 2
ε0 4π ε0 r 2

Lecture 3
36
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law
Consider a spherical shell of uniform charge density:

 q0 , a ≤ r ≤ b
qev = 
a
0, otherwise
b

Lecture 3
37
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
(1) Assume from symmetry the form of
the field
D = aˆ r Dr ( R )

(2) Construct a family of Gaussian

spheres of radius r where
surfaces
0≤r ≤∞
Lecture 3
38
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
 Here, we shall need to treat
separately 3 sub-families of Gaussian
surfaces:
1) 0≤r ≤a
2) a<r ≤b
a
3) r >b
b

Lecture 3
39
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
Gaussian surfaces
for which
0≤r ≤a

Gaussian surfaces
for which
a<r ≤b
Gaussian surfaces
for which
r >b
Lecture 3
40
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
(3) Evaluate the total charge within the volume
enclosed by each Gaussian surface

Qencl = ∫ qev dv
V

Lecture 3
41
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
 For
0≤r ≤a Qencl = 0

 For a < r ≤ b
r
4 3 4
Qencl = ∫ q0 dv = q0 π r − q0 π a 3

a
3 3
4
(
= q0 π r 3 − a 3
3
)
Lecture 3
42
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
 For
r >b
b
4 3 4
Qencl = ∫ qev dv = q0 π b − q0 π a 3

a
3 3
4
(
= q0 π b 3 − a 3
3
)

Lecture 3
43
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
(4) For each Gaussian surface, evaluate the integral

∫ D ⋅ d s = DS
S
surface area
of Gaussian
surface.
magnitude of D
on Gaussian
surface.

∫ D ⋅ d s = D ( r ) 4π r
2
r
S
Lecture 3
44
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
(5) Solve for D on each Gaussian surface

Qencl
D=
S

Lecture 3
45
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)


0, 0≤r ≤a

 q 0
4
π ( r 3
− a 3
) q0  a 
3
D = aˆ r 3 = aˆ r  r − 2 , a<r ≤b
 4π r 2
3 r 

 q0 π ( b − a )
4
q0 ( b 3 − a 3 )
3 3

aˆ r 3 = aˆ r , r >b
 4π r 2
3 r 2

Lecture 3
46
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge
Using Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
 Notice that for r > b

Total charge contained

in spherical shell
Qtot
D = aˆ r
4π r 2
4
(
Qtot = q0 π b 3 − a 3
3
)

Lecture 3
47
 Electric Flux Density of a
Spherical Shell of Charge Using
Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
0.7

0.6

0.5 q0 = 1 C/m 3
a =1m
Dr (C/m)

0.4

0.3
b=2m
0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Lecture 3
48
 Electric Flux Density of an
Infinite Line Charge Using
Gauss’s Law
Consider a infinite line charge carrying charge per
unit length of qel :

qel

z
Lecture 3
49
 Electric Flux Density of an
Infinite Line Charge Using
Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
(1) Assume from symmetry the form of
the field
D = aˆ ρ Dρ ( ρ )

(2) Construct a family of Gaussian

cylinders of radius ρ where
surfaces
0≤ ρ ≤∞
Lecture 3
50
 Electric Flux Density of an
Infinite Line Charge Using
Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
(3) Evaluate the total charge within the volume
enclosed by each Gaussian surface

Qencl = ∫ qel dl
L

cylinder is
Qencl = qel l infinitely long!

Lecture 3
51
 Electric Flux Density of an
Infinite Line Charge Using
Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
(4) For each Gaussian surface, evaluate the integral

∫ D ⋅ d s = DS
S
surface area
of Gaussian
surface.
magnitude of D
on Gaussian
surface.

∫ D ⋅ d s = Dρ ( ρ ) 2π ρ l
S
Lecture 3
52
 Electric Flux Density of an
Infinite Line Charge Using
Gauss’s Law (Cont’d)
(5) Solve for D on each Gaussian surface

Qencl
D=
S

qel
D = aˆ ρ
2π ρ

Lecture 3
53
Gauss’s Law in Integral
Form

∫ D⋅ds = Q
S
encl = ∫ qev dv
V

ds
V
S

Lecture 3
54
 Recall the Divergence
Theorem
 Also called
Gauss’s theorem or ∫ D ⋅ d s = ∫ ∇ ⋅ D dv
Green’s theorem. S V
 Holds for any
ds
volume and
corresponding V
closed surface. S

Lecture 3
55
 Applying Divergence
Theorem to Gauss’s Law

∫ D ⋅ d s = ∫ ∇ ⋅ D dv = ∫ q
S V V
ev dv

⇒ Because the above must hold for any

volume V, we must have

∇ ⋅ D = qev Differential form

of Gauss’s Law

Lecture 3
56
 Fields in Materials
 Materials contain charged
particles that respond to applied
electric and magnetic fields.
 Materials are classified according
to the nature of their response to
the applied fields.

Lecture 3
57
 Classification of
Materials
 Conductors
 Semiconductors

 Dielectrics

 Magnetic materials

Lecture 3
58
 Conductors
 A conductor is a material in which
electrons in the outermost shell
of the electron migrate easily
from atom to atom.
 Metallic materials are in general
good conductors.

Lecture 3
59
 Conduction Current
 In an otherwise empty universe,
a constant electric field would
cause an electron to move with
constant acceleration.
E
a
-e
− eE
a=
me
e = 1.602 × 10-19 C
magnitude of electron charge
Lecture 3
60
 Conduction Current

(Cont’d)
In a conductor, electrons are constantly
colliding with each other and with the fixed
nuclei, and losing momentum.
 The net macroscopic effect is that the electrons
move with a (constant) drift velocity vd which is
proportional to the electric field.

v d = − µe E
Electron mobility Lecture 3
61
 Conductor in an
Electrostatic Field
 To have an electrostatic field, all
charges must have reached their
equilibrium positions (i.e., they
are stationary).
 Under such static conditions,
there must be zero electric field
within the conductor. (Otherwise
charges would continue to flow.)
Lecture 3
62
 Conductor in an
Electrostatic Field

(Cont’d)
If the electric field in which the conductor is
immersed suddenly changes, charge flows
temporarily until equilibrium is once again reached
with the electric field inside the conductor becoming
zero.
 In a metallic conductor, the establishment of
equilibrium takes place in about 10-19 s - an
extraordinarily short amount of time indeed.

Lecture 3
63
 Conductor in an
Electrostatic Field
(Cont’d)
 There are two important consequences to the
There are two important consequences to the
fact that the electrostatic field inside a
metallic conductor is zero:
1 The conductor is an equipotential body.

2 The charge on a conductor must reside

entirely on its surface.
• A corollary of the above is that the electric
field just outside the conductor must be
normal to its surface.

Lecture 3
64
 Conductor in an
Electrostatic Field
(Cont’d)

- - -
- -

+ +
+ +
+

Lecture 3
65
 Macroscopic versus
Microscopic Fields
 In our study of electromagnetics, we
use Maxwell’s equations which are
written in terms of macroscopic
quantities.
 The lower limit of the classical domain
is about 10-8 m = 100 angstroms. For
smaller dimensions, quantum
mechanics is needed.

Lecture 3
66
 Boundary Conditions on the
Electric Field at the Surface of a
Metallic Conductor

ân
Et = 0 -
- - -
-
E=0
Dn = aˆ n ⋅ D = qes +
+ + +
+

Lecture 3
67
 Induced Charges on
Conductors
 The BCs given above imply that if a
conductor is placed in an externally
applied electric field, then
 the field distribution is distorted so that the
electric field lines are normal to the
conductor surface
 a surface charge is induced on the conductor
to support the electric field

Lecture 3
68
 Applied and Induced
Electric Fields
 The applied electric field (Eapp ) is the field that
exists in the absence of the metallic
conductor (obstacle).
 The induced electric field (Eind ) is the field that
arises from the induced surface charges.
 The total field is the sum of the applied and
induced electric fields.

E = E app + E ind
Lecture 3
69