Sampling and

Sampling Distribution
Module-3
Types of Sampling

Sampling : Introduction
A sample is a definite plan for obtaining a

data from a given population.

It refers to the technique or the procedure the

researcher would adopt in selecting items for

the sample.

Meaning: It is the aggregate of element about which we

wish to make inferences. A member of the

population is an element. It is the unit of
study.
A part of population is known as a sample.
The process of drawing a sample from a
large population is called sampling.
The list of sampling unit from which a sample
is taken is called the sampling frame.

Example:A researcher wants to survey the brand

preference of households regarding
premium soaps in R.T. Nagar area of the
city of Bangalore.
The total of all households in R.T. Nagar is the

population.
Suppose a list of households is not available,
each block may be considered as sampling unit.
A List of such blocks will be used as the
sampling frame.

Types of Sampling :

Probability Sampling Method

Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling Method

Convenience Sampling
Judgment Sampling
Quota Sampling

Probability Sampling Methods

It is based on the theory of probability. It is also

known as random sampling or chance sampling.

In probability sampling every population has a
chance of being selected. Such chance is known
as probability.
E.g. If a sampling frame is a list of 100 students of
a specific course of study, in a simple random
sample, each student has 1/100th chance of being
selected
Probability sampling yields a representative
sample.

Simple Random Sampling

This technique gives each element an equal &

independent chance of being selected.

Equal probability selection method is described as
Epsem sampling.
An independent chance means that the draw of one
element will not affect the chances of other element
being selected.
Where some element are purposely excluded from the
sample , the resulting sample is not a random one.
Hence all the element should be included in the sample
frame to draw a random sample.

Procedure:
Enumeration of all element in the

population.
Drawing sample number by using : Lottery method
A table of random numbers

Lottery Method: This is the simplest and most familiar procedure of

random sampling.
E.g. If a sample of 10 students is to be drawn out of 50 in a
section, Write the nos 1-50 in a slips and pick 10 slips ,
the units bearing the numbers of slips drawn constitute
the random sample.
They are two alternatives:After a number is selected by draw, it may be replaced
and consequently it has a chance of being selected again.
This is referred as unrestricted random sampling.
The Selected number is set aside, & in the subsequent
draws, it does not get a chance of being selected again.
This is referred as restricted random sampling.

The table of random numbers

To select a random sample out of a given frame,

One should start selecting the number from a

table of Random number at any randomly
selected point & with in the range of frame.
The table of random numbers is ideal for
obtaining a random sample from relatively
small populations. When population are quite
large say lakhs, drawing number from the table
becomes tedious.

Example: Let us suppose that the random sample of 50 is to

selected from a college population of 500 commerce

students.
Sample of random numbers
100
374
084
090
128

732
110
885
578
450

225
248
997
445
780

337
397
019
320
540

762
284
028
001
444

522
376
639
012
079

All the numbers within the range of 1-500 may be picked

up for the study.

Suitability: The simple random sampling is suitable only for a

small homogenous population/ group with reference to

the specified characteristics.
Where the population is relatively small.
Where a complete list of all elements is available or can

be prepared.
The simple random sampling is not suitable for drawing a
sample from a large heterogeneous population, as it
may not yield a representative sample of such
population.

Stratified Random Sampling

The members of the population are first assigned to strata or

groups and simple random sample is drawn from each stratum.

In simple words, when the population is very much heterogeneous

& it is divided into different strata on the basis of age, socio-eco

status, occupation, educational background, Residence (urban,
sub-urban, Rural) in this case stratified random sampling will be
the best choice.
It is the process of selecting a sample in such a way that, identified

sub-group in the population are represented in the sample.

Steps for random sampling

Identify and define the population
Determine the desired sample size
Identify the variable & sub-group (strata) for which

you want to guarantee appropriate representation.

Classify all members of the population as member of

one of the identified sub-groups.

Randomly select an appropriate number of individuals

from each of the sub-group.

Example:Population 400
10th grade student
70-High IQ Students 260 Avg IQ Students 70 Low IQ Students
30 High IQ boys 40 High IQ girls
Randomly Selected
15 High IQ boys & girls

Need for Stratification

Increasing a samples statistical efficiency
Providing adequate data for analyzing the

various sub-population.
Stratification is essential when the researcher

wants to study the characteristics of population

sub-group.
Suitability:- is appropriate for a large
heterogeneous population

Representation of the subgroups can be proportionate or

disproportionate

For example, if you wanted to sample 100 farmers from a

population of farmers in which 90% are male and 10% are

female, a proportionate stratified sample would select 90
males and 10 females.
But you may want to know more about the women farmers
then is possible in a sample .
So you can select a disproportionate stratified sample, for
example, you could select 50 males and 50 females.

Case Study 15.3 Stratified sampling of households

A survey is conducted on household water supply in a

district comprising 2,000 households, of which 400 (or

20%) are urban and 1,600 (or 80%) are rural.
It is suspected that in urban areas the access to safe water
sources is much more satisfactory than in rural areas.
A decision is made to sample 200 households altogether,
but to include 100 urban households and 100 rural
households.
Is this sample a proportionate or a disproportionate stratified
sample?

Systematic Sampling
This method of sampling is an alternative to random

sampling. It consists of taking every k th item in the

population after a random start with an item from 1 to
k.
E. g. suppose it is desired to select a sample of 20
students, from a list of 300 students , divide the
population total of 300 by 20, the quotient is 15.
select a number at random between 1 & 15, using
lottery method. Suppose the selected number is 9, then
the students numbered 9 , 24(9+15), 39 (24+15),
54(39+15), 69,84.. Are selected as sample.

Cluster Sampling
Divide the entire population into clusters and select entire groups

or clusters at random to collect information from these clusters or

groups.

E.g. Suppose a researcher wants to select a random sample of 1000

households out of 40000 estimated households in a city for a

survey. A direct sample of individual household would be difficult
to select , because a list of households does not exist and would be
to costly to prepare.
Instead he can select a random sample of a few blocks/wards. The
no of blocks to be selected depends upon the average no of
estimated households per block. Suppose the average no of
households per block is 200, then 5 blocks comprises the sample,
& from each sample blocks a certain number of households may
be selected by systematic sampling.

Some illustration of cluster are:

Population

Elements

Cluster or sampling
unit

City

Households

Blocks

City

Individuals

Households

Affiliating UNIV

Students

Affiliated Colleges

Rural areas

Households

Villages

Cluster Vs Stratified
Cluster Sampling
When natural groupings are evident in a statistical population, this
technique is used.
It can be opted if the group consists of homogeneous members.
Its advantages are that it is cheaper as compared to the other
methods.
The main disadvantage is that it introduces higher errors.

Stratified Sampling
In this method, the members are grouped into
relatively homogeneous groups.
It is a good option for heterogeneous members.
The advantages are that this method ignores
the irrelevant ones and focuses on the crucial
sub populations. Another advantage is that
for different sub populations, you can opt for
different techniques.

Stratified Sampling
This also helps in improving the efficiency and
accuracy of the estimation. This allows
greater balancing of statistical power of tests.
When there are homogeneous subgroups, it is
not much useful. Its implementation is
expensive. If not provided with accurate
information about the population, then an
error may be introduced.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

The probability of inclusion of any unit
(of population) in a sample is not known. It
involve human judgment rather than
pure chance. The degree of accuracy is
also unknown.

Contd: Convenience Sampling : The selection of the sample is left to the

researcher who is to select the sample unit in a just hit and miss
fashion. Most suitable in exploratory research.
E.g. Interviewing the people whom we happen to meet.

Judgment Sampling :This involves selection of cases which we

judge as the most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based
on the judgment of the researcher and some experts. It does not
aim at securing a cross section of the population.

Quota Sampling : The population is stratified on the basis of age,

gender, income, family size etc. More often compounded

stratification is used in groups with gender.

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

Goal Orientation
Measurability
Usability
Cost Factor

Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

Starting from data collection to inferring results, two kinds of errors

may come:
Sampling Errors : arise due to studying only a part of the total
population. These may arise due to non-representative ness of the
sample and the inadequacy of sample size.
When several samples are drawn from a population, their results
would not be identical. The degree of variation of sample result is
known as standard error
Non-Sampling Errors : arise due to technically faulty observation or
calculations during the processing of data.
Methods of data collection
Incomplete coverage of the population
Inaccurate information provided by the participants
Error during tabulation, editing etc.

Concept of measurement & Scaling

Measurement in research consists of assigning numbers

to empirical events in compliance with a set of rules.

The definition implies the measurement in three part
process: Selecting observable empirical events.
Developing a set of mapping rules: a scheme for
assigning numbers to represent aspects of the event
being measured.
Applying the mapping rule to each observation of that
event.

Example:
(1) Do you feel respected by your colleagues/ coworkers?
Very desirable 5
4 3 2 1 Very undesirable
Sample element :- Colleagues/ Co-workers or Individuals
Empirical Observation :- Respected
Mapping rules :- Rating Scale
(2) Is there employee turnover in your organization?

(a) Yes
b) No

Scaling Techniques
Nominal Scale : In this scale, numbers are used to
identify the objects.
Eg.1 : university registration numbers assigned to
students.
Eg.2 : Have u ever visited Bangalore ?
Yes 1
No 2
The idea of using nominal scale is to make sure that no
two persons or object receive the same no.
Statistical implication : It is possible to express mode.

Scaling Techniques
Ordinal Scale : is an ranking scale. This scale are used

to ascertain the consumer perception, preferences etc.

Eg: Respondents may be given a list of brands which
may be suitable & were asked to rank on the basis of
ordinal scale.
Statistical implication: It is possible to calculate the mode
& the median.

Contd
Rank

Brand

No. of Respondents

Cinthol

150

II

Liril

300

III

Hamam

250

IV

Lux

200

Lifebuoy

100

Total

1000

Difference between Nominal & Ordinal scale

In nominal scale numbers can be interchanged,

because it serves only for the purpose of counting.

Numbers in ordinal scale have meaning & it wont
allow interchangeability
Eg: Students may be categorized according to their
grades of A,B,C,D,E,F etc. Where A is better than B
and so on.
The classification is from the highest grade to the
lowest grade.

Interval Scale
Interval scale is more powerful than the

nominal & ordinal scale.

The distance given on the scale represents
equal distance on the property being
measured.
Interval scale may tell us How far the
objects are apart with respect to an
attribute?

Contd:
This means that the difference can be

compared. The difference between 1 & 2 is

equal to the difference between 2 & 3.
Eg: Suppose we want to measure the rating of
a refrigerator using interval scale, it may
appear as follows :
1. Brand name
Poor ----------------- Good
2. Price
High ----------------- Low
3. Service after-sale Poor---------------- good

Contd :
Eg: How important is price to you while buying a
car ?
Least important 1
Unimportant 2
Neutral 3
Important 4
Most important 5

Contd :
Eg: The counter-clerks at ICICI bank are very
friendly.
1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neither agree nor disagree
4. Agree
5. Strongly agree
Statistical implication: range, mean, S.D, t-test.

Difference between interval & ordinal scale

Ordinal scale gives only the ranking of the

alternatives: one is greater than the other,

but wont give the difference/distance
between one and the other.
Interval scale provides information about the
difference between one and the other.

Ratio Scale
Ratio scale is a special kind of interval scale,

with this scale income, sales or distance can

be measured.
In this scale, it is possible to say how many
times greater or smaller one object is being
compared to other.
Eg: Sales this yr for product A are twice the
sales of the same product last yr.

Types of measurement data/scales

Types of
data/scales

Characteristics of data Basic empirical

operation

Examples

Nominal

Classification but no
order, distance or
origin

Determination of
equality

Genders,

Ordinal

Classification & order

but no distance or
unique origin

Determination of
greater or lesser
value

Superior to,
happier than,
poorer than

Interval

Classification order & Determination of

distance but no unique equality of
origin
intervals or
differences

Temperature in
degrees

Ratio

Classification order
distance & unique
origin

Areas, distance,

Determination of
Equality of ratio

number of
customers,
costs, age

Properties of scales
1. Classification : a measure that can be used to classify objects or

their characteristics into distinctive classes/categories. this is a

minimum requirement for any measure.
2. Order: a measure is said to have an order if the objects or their
characteristics can be arranged in a meaningful order.
3. equal distance : if for a measure, the difference between any two
consecutive category ( generally termed as values for numeric
variable) of a measured attribute, are equal , then the measure is
said to have equal distance .
4. origin : a measurement scale for measuring a characteristic is
said to have a fixed origin if there is a meaningful zero or absence
of the characteristic.

Types of scales
1. nominal scales : a qualitative scale without order is

called nominal scale. This scale can only be categorized.

2. ordinal : is the scale that does not measure values of the
characteristic, but indicates only the order or rank.
Qualitative scale with order is called ordinal scale.
3. interval : interval data is quantitative data that can be
measured on a numerical scale.
4. Ratio :

Characteristics of sound measurement

Validity :- refers to the extend to which a test
measures what we actually wish to measure.
Reliability :- has to do with the accuracy and
precision of a measurement procedure.
Practicality :- is concerned with a wide range of
factors of economy, convenience, and
interpretability.

What is Scaling?
Scaling :is a procedure for the assigning of numbers to
indicants of the properties of objects.
Types of Response Scales: Rating Scales
Ranking Scales

Contd: Rating Scales :- is used when respondents score an

object without making any comparison to other object.
Ranking Scales :- constraints the study
participants to make comparison among two or more
indicants or objects .

Types of Rating Scales

Simple category
Multiple choice :single response
Multiple choice :multiple response
Likert scale
Semantic differential
Numerical
Multiple rating
Graphic rating

Types of Ranking Scales

Paired-comparison
Forced Ranking
Comparative

Types of Rating Scales:

Simple category : also called dichotomous scale.
It offers two mutually exclusive response choice. They
are yes & no, agree & disagree etc
E.g. Does compensation leads to motivation directly?
(a) Yes
b) No

Contd:Multiple choice single response / multiple

response: Allows the rater to select one or several
alternatives.
E.g. What sort of non-monetary benefits would you prefer
in your Company?
a) Training facilities
d) Flexible work hours
b) Rewards for referrals e) Overseas assignment
c) Gifting of leave
f) Recognitions

Contd: Likert scale :- The Likert Scales consists of a number of

statements which either a favorable or unfavorable attitude
towards the given object to which the respondent is asked to
react.
E.g. An advertisement helps my decision in choosing the brand?
Strongly Agree
[ ]
Moderately Agree
[ ]
Neither Agree nor Disagree [ ]
Moderately Disagree
[ ]
Strongly Disagree
[ ]

Contd: Semantic differential :- This method consists of a

set of bipolar rating scale, usually with seven points, by
which one or more respondents rate one or more
concept on scale item.
E.g. Other than brand attributes like quality, value for
money, how much do you think celebrity endorsement
is important?
Most important
Severe

:_: _ :_ :_ :_ :_ :_ : Not at all important

:_: _ :_ :_ :_ :_ :_ : Lenient
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

Contd: Numerical Scales :- are 5-points scale. The

respondent writes a number from the scale next to
each item.
E.g. Do you receive timely information relating to your work?
5
4
3
2
1

Contd: Multiple rating Scale:- is similar to the numerical

scale but differs in two ways:
1) It accepts a circled response from the rater
2) The layout allows visualization of the results.
E.g. Please indicate how important or unimportant each
service characteristic is.
Important
unimportant
Fast reliable repair
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Services at my location
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Knowledgeable technicians 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contd:Graphic rating Scale:- This scale uses pictures, icons,

other visuals to communicate with the rater and
represent a variety of data types.
E.g. How likely are you to recommend complete care to
others ? ( place an x at the position along the line that
best reflects your judgment )
Very likely

_____________________ Very Unlikely

Types of Ranking Scales

Paired-comparison Scale :- the respondents can
express attitude unambiguously by choosing between
two objects.

E.g. For each pair of sports car listed, place a check

beside the one you would prefer if you had to choose
between the two.
a)________ BMW Z3
________ Chevrolet
b)________Porsche Boxster
________ PorschBoxster

Forced ranking scale

This method is faster than paired comparisons and is usually

easier and more motivating to the respondents. In this scale

attributes are given/listed, respondents are asked to rank relative
to each other.

E.g. Acc to your preference rank the folg non-monetary

benefits provided in your Company?
a) Training facilities
d) Flexible work hours
b) Rewards for referrals
e) Overseas assignment
c) Gifting of leave
f) Recognitions

Comparative Scales:Is ideal for comparison of attributes using ranking scale,

if the respondents are familiar with the standard.

E.g. Compared to your previous mutual funds

performance, the new one is.
Superior
Same
_____
_____
____
1
2
3

____
4

Inferior
_____
5

Scale Design Techniques

Arbitrary scaling :- A scale is custom-designed to

measure a property or indicant.

Consensus scaling :- Requires items to be selected
by a panel of judges and then evaluated.
Item Analysis scaling :- is a procedure for
evaluating an item based on how well it discriminates
between those person. The most popular scale using
this approach is Likert scale.
Cumulative scaling :- Scales are chosen for their
conformity to a ranking of items with ascending and
descending discriminating power.