MPU 2323

ENVIRONMENT
DEVELOPMENT IN
MALAYSIA
1.0 Basic Environmental Concepts

Basic Environmental Concepts

Outline :
- Fundamental concepts
- Biosphere and the distribution of life
- Natural resources
- Fundamentals of energy-renewable and nonrenewable
- Interrelationships in the ecosystem

What is environmental science?

Environmental science
is the systematic study
of our environment and
our place in it.
Because
environmental
problems are complex,
environmental science
draws on many fields
of knowledge (fig 1.4).

1-3

Fundamental Concepts

Environment Everything that surrounds

us
A complex system with physical,
biological, geological, ecological, and
geopolitical aspects.
Requires multidisciplinary research
Environmental crisis: Population,
environmental hazards, resource
limitations and contaminations,
environment ownership (both in space and

Environment: the total of our surroundings

All the things around us with which
we interact:
Living things
Animals, plants, forests, fungi, etc.

Non-living things
Continents, oceans, clouds, soil, rocks

Our built environment

Buildings, human-created living centers

Social relationships and institutions

Humans and the world around us

Humans depend completely on the environment for
survival.
Enriched and longer lives, increased wealth, health,
mobility, leisure time
But natural systems have been degraded
Pollution, erosion, and species extinction
Environmental changes threaten long-term health
and survival.
Environmental science is the study of:
How the natural world works
How the environment affects humans and vice versa
With environmental problems come opportunities for
solutions.

Natural resources: vital to human survival

Natural resources = substances and energy sources needed for

survival

Renewable resources:
Perpetually available: sunlight, wind, wave energy
Renew themselves over short periods of time: timber, water,
soil. These can be destroyed
Non-renewable resources: can be depleted
Oil, coal, minerals

Global human population growth

More than 6.7 billion humans
Why so many humans?
Agricultural revolution
Stable food supplies
Industrial revolution
Urbanized society
powered by fossil fuels
Sanitation and
medicines
More food

Thomas Malthus and human population

Thomas Malthus
Food production is in
arithmetic progression but
population growth is in
geometric progression
Population growth must be
controlled, or it will
outstrip food production.
Starvation, war, disease
.

The ecological footprint

The environmental impact of a
person or population
Amount of biologically
productive land + water
For resources and to
dispose/recycle waste
Overshoot: humans have
surpassed the Earths capacity to
support us
We are using 30% more of the planets resources than are
available on a sustainable basis!

Environmental science

Can help us avoid mistakes made by past civilizations

Human survival depends on how we interact with our
environment.
Our impacts are now global.
Many great civilizations have fallen after depleting their
resources.
The lesson of Easter Island:
people annihilated their
culture by destroying their
environment. Can we act
more wisely to conserve our
resources?

Environmental science: how the

natural world works
Environment impacts Humans
Its goal: developing solutions to
environmental problems
An interdisciplinary field
Natural sciences: information about the
natural world
Environmental Science programs
Social sciences: study human interactions
and behavior
Environmental Studies programs

Environmental science: how the

natural world works
Environment impacts Humans
Its goal: developing solutions to
environmental problems
An interdisciplinary field
Natural sciences: information about the
natural world
Environmental Science programs
Social sciences: study human interactions
and behavior
Environmental Studies programs

Ethics
Ethics: the study of good and bad, right and
wrong
The set of moral principles or values held by a person
or society that tells us how we ought to behave
People use criteria, standards, or rules when making
judgments.
Different cultures or worldviews lead to different
values, which lead to different actions.

Ethical standards
Ethical standards: criteria that help differentiate
right from wrong
Classical standard = virtue
The golden rule: treat others as you want to be treated
Utility: something right produces the most benefits for
the most people

Environmental ethics
Environmental ethics: application of ethical
standards to relationships between human and
non-human entities
Hard to resolve; depends on the persons ethical
standards
Depends
Should
we conserve
on the persons
ethicala concern
Is isdomain
OK to of
destroy
resources for future
forest to create jobs
generations?
for people?
Should we drive other
species to extinction?

Is it OK for some communities

to be exposed to excess
pollution?

What are resources?

Any material which is part of earth and satisfy human
need and add value is called as resource.
Example:rocks,minerals,soil,,rivers,
plants & animal.
Human is a resource because developing his skill, he
can develop other resource by adding value to the
physical material .

TYPES OF RESOURCES
Natural Resources
Human Resources
Man-made Resources

Natural Resource
It is the form of matter/energy which is
available in the earth and get used by living
thing.
Eg:air,water,soil,minerals,fossil-fuel,wildlife.

Water Resources
Water is essential for life.
Water dissolves nutrients and distributes them
to cells, regulates body temperature, supports
structures, and removes waste products.
About 60 percent of your body is water.
Water also is needed for agriculture, industry,
transportation, and a host of other human
uses. In short, clean freshwater is one of our
most vital natural resources.
10-20

10-21

 The hydrologic cycle constantly redistributes water: Water

evaporates from moist surfaces, falls as rain or snow, passes through
living organisms, and returns to the ocean in a process known as the
hydrologic cycle.
Every year, about 500,000 km3, or a layer 1.4 m thick, evaporates
from the oceans. More than 90 percent of that moisture falls back on
the ocean. The 47,000 km3 carried onshore joins some 72,000 km3 that
evaporate from lakes, rivers, soil, and plants to become our annual,
renewable freshwater supply.
Plants play a major role in the hydrologic cycle, absorbing
groundwater and pumping it into the atmosphere by transpiration
(transport plus evaporation).
In tropical forests, as much as 75 percent of annual precipitation is
returned to the atmosphere by plants. Solar energy drives the
hydrologic cycle by evaporating surface water, which becomes rain
and snow.

 Because water and sunlight are unevenly distributed

around the globe, water resources are very uneven.
Rainfall is also slight at very high latitudes, another high
pressure region.
At Iquique in the Chilean desert, no rain has fallen in
recorded history.
At the other end of the scale, 22 m (72 ft) of rain was
recorded in a single year at Cherrapunji in India.
Most of the worlds rainiest regions are tropical, where
heavy rainy seasons occur, or in coastal mountain regions.

FOREST RESOURCES

Healthy forests provide quality

habitat for wildlife
flying squirrel

box turtle

screech owl

spotted turtle

spotted salamander

FOREST RESOURCES
Forests most valued resources.
Forests are under threat due to :
- increasing pressure from population growth
- unsustainable resource use
- poor management
- clearance for cash crop production and
urban expansion

Ecological Importance of Forests

Food web and energy flow

Water regulation
Local and regional climate
Numerous habitats and niches
Preserves soil fertility
Air purification
Control of erosion
Provides moisture
Lowers temperature
General aesthetic

Category Of Natural Resources

Renewable
Non-Renewable

Renewable Resource
These are those resources which are renewed/replenished fast and are not
affected by human activity.
Renewable energy sources are more commonly used by developed nations.
Example:

solar energy,
water
air
biomass
wood

Non-Renewable
These are those resources which are not
renewed/replenished and are affected by human
activity.
Over 85% of the energy used in the world is from
non-renewable supplies
Most developed nations are dependent on nonrenewable energy sources such as fossil fuels (coal
and oil) and nuclear power.
Industrialized societies depend on non-renewable
energy sources.

Example Of Non-Renewable
Resource

COAL
OIL
NATURAL GAS
OIL SHALE AND TAR SANDS
NUCLEAR POWER

Coal & Energy Security

Conclusion

Finding ways to live sustainably on Earth requires

a solid ethical grounding and scientific
understanding of our natural and social systems.
Environmental science helps us understand our
relationship with the environment and informs our
attempts to solve and prevent problems.
Identifying a problem is the first step in solving it.
Solving environmental problems can move us
toward health, longevity, peace, and prosperity.
Environmental science can help find balanced
solutions to environmental problems.

QUESTION: Review
The term environment includes:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Living things, such as animals and plants

Non-living things, such as rivers and soil
Buildings and cities
All of the above are included in this term

QUESTION: Review
A Neo-Malthusian would say that predicted
massive human starvation has not yet occurred
because:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Diseases have been eradicated

Enough people are dying from war and conflict
Agriculture has postponed massive starvation
People are too dumb to limit their population
growth

QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is correct about the term
environmentalism?
a) It involves pursuing knowledge to understand the
natural world.
b) It is a social movement to protect the environment.
c) It usually does not include advocacy for the
environment.
d) It requires trying to remain objective.

QUESTION: Review
Which is the correct order of the scientific
method?
a)
b)
c)
d)

Observation, hypothesis, predictions, testing, results

Hypothesis, observation, testing, predictions, results
Observation, predictions, testing, results, hypothesis
Predictions, observation, hypothesis, testing, results

QUESTION: Review
An anthropocentric worldview would consider
the impact of an action on:
a) Plants only
b) Animals only
c) Humans only
d) All living things
e) All non-living things

QUESTION: Review
Which ethic holds that resources should be wisely
used?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Preservation ethic
Land ethic
Conservation ethic
Deep ecology
Biocentrism

QUESTION: Review
What is the definition of sustainable
development?
a) Using resources to benefit future generations, even
if it means lower availability now
b) Letting future generations figure out their own
problems
c) Letting each country decide what is its best interest
d) Using resources to satisfy current needs without
compromising future availability

QUESTION: Weighing the Issues

Which do you think is the best way to protect
commonly owned resources (i.e., air, water,
fisheries)?
a) Sell the resource to a private entity
b) Let organizations themselves decide if they want to
participate in protecting the resource
c) Enact governmental regulations
d) Do nothing and see what happens

1.1 THE BIOPSPHERE

THE BIOSPHERE

The area of the earth that

supports life which
focuses on living organism
and what they need to live

Vegetation
and animals
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Soil
Rock
Lithosphere

Crust
Mantle

Biosphere
(living organisms)
Core
Mantle

Geosphere
(crust, mantle, core)

Atmosphere
(air)
Crust
(soil and rock)
Hydrosphere
(water)
Fig. 3-5, p. 42

The Biosphere and Its Divisions

Levels of Organization
Study of the interactions between a particular
organization and its surroundings.
Species
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Biome
Biosphere

Levels of Organization
Species
Group of organisms so similar that they can breed
and produce fertile offspring.

Population
Groups of individuals that belong to the same
species living in the same area.

Levels of Organization
Community
Groups of different populations within a defined
area.

Ecosystem
Collection of organisms that live in a particular
place with nonliving; or physical environment.

Levels of Organization
Biome
Group of ecosystems that have the same climate
and similar dominant communities.

Biosphere
The earth

Ecologists study environments at

different levels of organization.
Ecology is the study of the interactions among
living things, and between living things and their
surroundings.

Ecosystem

Community
Population
Organism

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

Biotic factors are any living part of an

environment.

plants
animals
fungi
bacteria

 Abiotic factors are any nonliving part of the

environment.

Sunlight
Temperature
Precipitation
Humidity
Wind

Biotic and Abiotic Factors Together

Physical factors can be strongly influenced
by the activities of organisms.

Also, a change in physical factors can

strongly affect the survival of the living
organisms.

3.2 Energy in Ecosystems

Living organisms need energy for growth, reproduction, and

their metabolic processes.
Producers provide all of the available energy in an
ecosystem

Primary Productivity

Producers are also called autotrophs because they

make their own food.

Most producers uses sunlight as an energy source.

Consumers include :

Herbivores feed on plants.

Carnivores feed on other animals.
Omnivores - feed on both plants and animals.
Detritivores eat dead organic matter (detritus).
Decomposers break down organic matter into
simpler compounds.

carnivore

decomposer

3.3 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

A food chain links species by their feeding relationships.

A food chain follows the connection between one producer
and a single chain of consumers within an ecosystem.
The ultimate source of energy for all producers and
consumers is the sun.

Trophic Levels

First Level Producers

Second Level First Level Consumers

Determine the available energy in the ecosystem

Primary consumers
Herbivores

Third Level Second Level Consumers

Secondary consumers
Omnivores and carnivores

Fourth Level

Third level consumers

(carnivores that eat other
carnivores)

Top carnivores or tertiary

consumers

Decomposers obtain energy from

dead and decaying matter at all
trophic levels.

produce detritus

Ex: bacteria and fungi

decomposer

Energy Flow

An energy pyramid shows the

distribution of energy among
trophic levels.

Only 10 percent of the energy

at each tier is transferred from
one trophic level to the next.

0.1%
1%

90 percent of the energy is

lost into the atmosphere as
heat.

10%

energy
lost

100%
energy transferred

Food Webs

A food web shows a complex network of

feeding relationships.

An organism may have multiple feeding

relationships in an ecosystem.

A food web emphasizes complicated

feeding relationships and energy flow in
an ecosystem.

Pyramid of Biomass

Biomass is usually
measured in grams of
organic matter per unit
area.
The amount of biomass
decreases moving up
the trophic levels

tertiary
consumers

75 g/m2

150g/m2
secondary
consumers

primary
consumers

producers
producers

675g/m2

2000g/m2

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity
Biodiversity, or biological diversity = the sum
of an areas organisms, considering the
diversity of species, their genes, their
populations, and their communities
There is no one exact definition of
biodiversity; people have conceived of it in
many ways.

The Value of Biodiversity

Why is biodiversity important?

Biodiversitys benefits to society include
contributions to medicine and agriculture, and the
provision of ecosystem goods and services.

Biodiversity is a natural asset that

provides goods and services

Food

Recreation
Medicine

Inspiration
Materials

Spiritual stimulation
Chemical products

Contemplation
Water & soil supply

Peace of mind
Climate regulation

Religious experiences
Science & technology
ItIt contributes
contributesto
to the
the
Sewage & garbage treatment
social,
economic,
social,
economic,
Biological control
intellectual
intellectual and
and
Pollination
spiritual
spiritual development
development
of
of society.
society.

The Value of Biodiversity

Intrinsic/inherent value
Extrinsic/utilitarian/
instrumental value

Source:BurmbaughAMNHCBC

Intrinsic/inherent value
The value of
something
independent of its
value to anyone or
anything else
A philosophical
concept

Source:FreyAMNHCBC

Extrinsic Value
Extrinsic value is a broad category
encompassing many types of biodiversity
values.
Extrinsic values also referred to as
utilitarian or use values

75

Direct Use Value: Goods

Food
Building Materials
Fuel
Paper Products
Fiber (clothing, textiles)
Industrial products (waxes,
rubber, oils)
Medicine

Source:AMNHCBC

Medicine
About 80% of the
people in developing
countries use plants as
a primary source of
medicine.

Source:AMNHCBC

57% of the 150 mostprescribed drugs have

their origins in
biodiversity

Drug

Source

Use

Barbaloin,aloeemodin

Aloe(Aloespp.)

Atropine

Belladonna(Atopa
belladonna)
Opiumpoppy(Papaver
somniferum)
Autumncrocus
(Colchicumautumnale)
Commonfoxglove
(Digitalispurpurea)
Jointfir(Ephedrasinica)

antibacterial,skin
conditions,purgative
Relaxant,sedative

Codeine
Colchicine

Painkiller
Anticanceragent

Traditional Medicine:Basis of Many Drugs

Digitoxin

Ephedrine,
Pseudoephedrine
LDopa
Menthol
Morphine
Quinine
Reserpine
Scopolamine
Taxol
Vinblastine,vincristine

Velvetbean(Mucuna
deeringiana)
Mint(Mentaspcs.)
Opiumpoppy(Papaver
somniferum)
Yellowcinchona
(Cinchonaledgeriana)
Indiansnakeroot
(Rauvolfiaserpentina)
Thornapple(Daturametel)
PacificYew(Taxus
brevifolia)
Rosyperiwinkle
(Catharanthusroseus)

Cardiacstimulant

Asthma,emphysema,
bronchiodilator,hayfever
Parkinsonsdisease
Nasalcongestion
Painkiller
Malaria
Hypertension
Sedative
Anticancer
Leukemia

Indirect Use Values: Services

Regulating global processes, such as
atmosphere and climate
Soil and water conservation
Nutrient cycling
Pollination and seed dispersal
Control of agricultural pests
Genetic library
Inspiration and information
Scientific and educational
Tourism and recreation
Cultural, spiritual, and aesthetic
Community Resilience
Strategic
Source:AMNHCBC

IMPORTANCE OF
BIODIVERSITY TO THE
ENVIRONMENT

Global Processes:
Atmospheric Regulation
Forests and other vegetation
modify climate in a variety of
ways; they affect :
sun reflectance,
water vapor release,
wind patterns
moisture loss.
Photosynthetic biodiversity
moderate atmospheric carbon
dioxide levels
The regulation of atmospheric
oxygen depends on biodiversity.

Source:FreyAMNHCBC

 Carbon cycles between the land, atmosphere, and oceans through a

combination of physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes.
One key way biodiversity influences the composition of the earths
atmosphere, and in turn its climate, is through its role in carbon cycling in
the oceans

Global Processes: Climate Regulation

Source:BainAMNHCBC

 Besides regulating the atmospheres composition, the

extent and distribution of different types of vegetation
over the globe modifies climate in three main ways:
i) affecting the reflectance of sunlight (radiation
balance)

ii)

regulating the release of water vapor

(evapotranspiration)
iii) changing wind patterns and moisture loss
(surface roughness).
84

 Vegetation absorbs water from the soil and releases it back

into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, which is the
major pathway for water to move from the soil to the
atmosphere. This release of water from vegetation cools the air
temperature.

85

 In the Amazon region, vegetation and climate is

tightly coupled; evapotranspiration of plants is
believed to contribute fifty percent of the annual
rainfall.
Deforestation in this region leads to a complex
feedback mechanism: as forest cover
decreases, evapotranspiration rates decline,
which in turn decreases rainfall and increases
the areas vulnerability to fire.
86

Soil and Water Conservation

Example:Coastalwetlandsandmangroves
Filters excess
nutrients and traps
sediments that
would otherwise
impact neighboring
marine and aquatic
areas
Other services:
Minimizes damage
from waves and
floods
Serves as a nursery
for juvenile
commercial fish

Source:ErstsAMNHCBC

 Biodiversity is also important for global soil

and water protection.
Terrestrial vegetation in forests and other
upland habitats maintain water quality and
quantity, and control soil erosion.

88

 In watersheds where vegetation has been removed,

flooding prevails in the wet season and drought in the
dry season.
Soil erosion is also more intense and rapid, causing a
double effect: removing nutrient-rich topsoil and
leading to siltation in downstream riverine and
ultimately oceanic environments.

89

Renewable and Nonrenewable

energy sources

Introduction of sources of energy

Non-Renewable

Renewable

1. Fossil Fuels
2. Nuclear

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Wind
Solar
Tidal
Hydropower
Geothermal

Non-Renewable energy sources:

1.Fossil Fuels

What are fossil

fuels ?

A fuel is any substance used as a source of energy,

including heating, transport, electricity generation and other
uses.
Most of the worlds energy is provided by the burning of
fossil fuels
Coal, Oil and Gas are called "fossil fuelsbecause they are
natural combustible substances formed originally from dead
plants and animals.
Fossil Fuel (http://www.enviroliteracy.org/fossil_fuels.html)

 The major fossil fuels are

coal,
Petroleum and
natural gas.
Fossils fuels are non-renewable energy
sources.
This is because fossil fuels take millions of
years to form. Once they are used up they
can never be replaced.

World Fuel Resources

Petroleum
or Oil

Natural Gas

Coal

Power
reserves

130 billion
tonnes

158 billion
cubic metres

950 billion
tonnes

Total used in
1990

2.2 billion
tonnes

1.5billion
cubic metres

2.2 billion
tonnes

From the above table, the present world's estimated oil

reserves may be used up in the next 50 to 60 years.

Coal

97

Coal
Coal is the plants ,that grew in swampy areas about
300 millions ago, died to form layers of decaying
material.
Heat, pressure and the action of bacteria changed
the decaying plants into coal.

How it works:
Coal is crushed to a fine dust and burnt.

COAL
World coal deposits are vast, ten times greater than
conventional oil and gas resources combined.
Total resource is estimated at 10 trillion metric tons.
Proven-in-place reserves should last about 200 years.

100

Proven Coal Reserves

101

Coal
Mining
About 40% of coal is located near the surface and
can strip mined.
The other 60% is too deep underground.
Underground mining is dirty and dangerous;
thousands of workers have died of respiratory
diseases.
Black Lung Disease - Inflammation and fibrosis caused by
accumulation of coal dust in the lungs or airways.

102

Figure 12.06

Coal Contd
Air Pollution
900 million tons of coal burned in U.S. for electric
power generation.
Multiple pollutants released.

Sulfur Dioxide Rotten eggs smell, creates acid rain (sulfuric acid)
Nitrogen Oxides Brown haze, creates acid rain (nitric acid)
Particulates - Smoke
Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse gas

105

How is coal used?

Today, about 70 % of the total coal mined is
burned in power station.

Coal Education (http://www.coaleducation.org/)

Petroleum

1. How was petroleum formed?

Petroleum was formed from small sea animals and
plants that lived millions of years ago. After they died,
heat; pressure; and the action of bacteria changed the
remains into oil. The oil formed was then trapped as
small drops inside the pores of rocks.

Petroleum (http://www.petroleum.co.uk/)

How is petroleum used?

The thick crude oil that comes from the ground is a
complex mixture of compounds. It is necessary to separate
the compounds. The separated substances have two main
uses:
sources of useful fuels;e.g. petrol
as raw materials to make other products; e.g. plastics,
detergents.

Products Made from a Barrel of Crude Oil

Proven Recoverable Oil Reserves

112

Worldwide Oil Exports

113

Worldwide Oil Imports

114

Natural Gas

 Natural gas is found together with oil and

sometimes with coal.
The gas consists mainly of methane CH4.

Natural Gas (http://www.naturalgas.org/)

 In some countries, the gas is carried by

pipes to homes and factories for heating and
cooking.

HOW NATURAL GAS IS STORED

AND DELIVERED

How is petroleum used?

The advantage and disadvantages of

using fossil fuel

Advantages
Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place
using coal, fairly cheaply.
Transporting oil and gas to the power stations is easy.
Gas-fired power stations are very efficient.
A fossil-fuelled power station can be built almost anywhere

Disadvantages
Pollution

Burning any fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide, which contributes to the
"greenhouse effect", warming the Earth.

Burning coal produces more carbon dioxide than burning oil or gas.
It also produces sulphur dioxide, a gas that contributes to acid rain. We can reduce
this before releasing the waste gases into the atmosphere.
Mining coal can be difficult and dangerous.

Strip mining destroys large areas of the landscape.

Nuclear Energy

What are Nuclear Power?

Nuclear power is generated using Uranium, which is
a metal mined in various parts of the world.
Some military ships and submarines have nuclear
power plants for engines.
Nuclear power produces around 11% of the world's
energy needs, and produces huge amounts of energy
from small amounts of fuel, without the pollution that
you'd get from burning fossil fuels

How Do Nuclear Reactors Work

Most commonly used fuel is U235, a naturally
occurring radioactive isotope of uranium.
Occurs naturally at 0.7% of uranium, but must be
enriched to about of 3% to create a fuel pellet.

125

Uranium-235

126

How Do Nuclear Reactors Work Contd

Fuel pellets are cylinder-shaped (1.5cm long)
stacked in hollow metal rods (4m long).
About 100 rods and bundled together to make a
fuel assembly.
Thousands of fuel assemblies bundled in reactor core

127

Fuel Rods Filled With Pellets Are Grouped

Into Fuel Assemblies

 The pellets are inserted into long metal tubes called

fuel rods. The fuel rods are made of zirconium
which resists heat, radiation and corrosion.
The rods are bundled together into fuel assemblies,
which are placed in the reactor.

Nuclear Fission
When struck by neutrons,
radioactive uranium atoms undergo
nuclear fission, releasing energy
and more neutrons.
Triggers nuclear chain reaction.

130

How Do Nuclear Reactors Work Contd

Reaction is moderated in a power plant by neutronabsorbing solution (Moderator).
In addition, Control Rods composed of neutronabsorbing material are inserted into spaces
between fuel assemblies to control reaction rate.
Water or other coolant is circulated between the fuel
rods to remove excess heat.

131

Controlling the Chain Reaction

Fuel
Assemblies
Control rods

Withdraw control rods,

reaction increases

Insert control rods,

reaction decreases

How Nuclear Energy Works

Nuclear Disasters

1979: Three Mile Island (near Harrisburg, PA)

Series of failures in nuclear core

Relief water valve stuck open

High amount of coolant allowed to escape.

Partial meltdown occurred

High amounts of radioactive xenon escaped, mostly went into

atmosphere.
Two weeks earlier: The China Syndrome movie released
These events caused a ripple effect throughout the U.S.

Increased safety requirements and regulations for all nuclear

reactors.

Public opinion turned against nuclear power.

134

Nearly complete end of nuclear construction since.

Nuclear Disasters

1986: Explosion at Chernobyl Nuclear Plant in Ukraine, U.S.S.R.

A controlled test of the safety emergency core cooling feature of the

reactor was scheduled.

Concern over what would happen if a power failure occurred backup

generators took ~1 minute to reach full capacity.

Control rods had been nearly completely removed to put the reactor at
full operating power.

When the test was started, the chain reaction began occurring
uncontrollably.

When this was detected, a shutdown of the reactor was ordered.

An unknown design flaw in the tips of the control rods caused coolant
fluid to be displaced.

This created an even larger energy spike, overwhelming the reactor

containment, causing an explosion and a complete core meltdown.

135

Advantages
Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it's not
expensive to make.
Does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does not
contribute to the greenhouse effect.
Produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel.
Produces small amounts of waste.

Disadvantages
It is very, very dangerous.
It must be sealed up and buried for many years to
allow the radioactivity to die away.
It is reliable,
but a lot of money has to be spent on safety - if it does
go wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major disaster.
People are increasingly concerned about the safety.

Renewable energy sources:

Wind

Introduction
We've used the wind as an energy source for
a long time.
Wind power was used in the Middle Ages, in
Europe, to grind corn, which is where the
term "windmill" comes from.

How it works

The wind blows the propellor round,

which turns a generator to produce electricity.

 The more towers, the more

wind, and the larger the
propellors, the more
electricity we can make
.
It's only worth building
wind farms in places that
have strong, steady winds,
although boats and caravans
increasingly have small
wind generators to help
keep their batteries charged.

Advantages
Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.
Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.
The land beneath can usually still be used for
farming.
Wind farms can be tourist attractions.
A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.

Disadvantages
The wind is not always predictable - some days have no
wind.
Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where
land is expensive.
Some people feel that covering the landscape with these
towers is unsightly.
Can kill birds - migrating flocks tend to like strong winds.
Can affect television reception if you live nearby.
Can be noisy.

Renewable energy
sources:
Solar Power

Introduction
We've used the Sun for drying clothes and food for
thousands of years, but only recently have we been
able to use it for generating power.
Just the tiny fraction of the Sun's energy that hits the
Earth (around a hundredth of a millionth of a percent)
is enough to meet all our power needs many times
over.
In fact, every minute, enough energy arrives at the
Earth to meet our demands for a whole year - if only
we could harness it properly.

How it works
There are two main ways that we use the Sun's
energy:1. Solar Cells-that convert
light directly into electricity.
2.Solar water heating,-where
heat from the Sun is used to
heat water in glass panels
on your roof.

Advantages
Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel
and produces no waste or pollution.

In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no

easy way to get electricity to a remote place.

Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden

lights and battery chargers

Disadvantages
Doesn't work at night.
Very expensive to build solar power stations.
Solar cells cost a great deal compared to the amount of
electricity they'll produce in their lifetime.
Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate. In
the United Kingdom, solar power isn't much use except for
low-power applications, as you need a very large area of solar
panels to get a decent amount of power.

Renewable energy
sources:
Tidal Power

Introduction
The tide moves a huge amount of water twice each
day, and harnessing it could provide a great deal of
energy - around 20% of Britain's needs.
Although the energy supply is reliable and plentiful,
converting it into useful electrical power is not easy.
There are eight main sites around Britain where tidal
power stations could usefully be built, including the
Severn, Dee, Solway and Humber estuaries.
Only around 20 sites in the world have been
identified as possible tidal power stations.

How it works: Tidal Barrages

These work rather like a
hydro-electric scheme,
except that the dam
is much bigger.
A huge dam
(called a "barrage") is built
across a river estuary.
When the tide goes
in and out, the water
flows through tunnels
in the dam.

Advantages

Once you've built it, tidal power is free.

It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.

It needs no fuel.

It produces electricity reliably.

Not expensive to maintain.

Tides are totally predictable.

Disadvantages
A barrage across an estuary is very
expensive to build, and affects a very wide
area - the environment is changed for many
miles upstream and downstream. Many
birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud
flats so that they can feed. There are few
suitable sites for tidal barrages.
Only provides power for around 10 hours
each day, when the tide is actually moving
in or out.

Renewable energy
sources:
Hydropower

Introduction
We have used running water as an energy source for
thousands of years, mainly to grind corn.
The first use of water to generate electricity was in
1882 on the Fox river, in the USA, which produced
enough power to light two paper mills and a house.

Nowadays there are many hydro-electric power

stations, providing around 20% of the world's
electricity. The name comes from "hydro", the
Greek word for water.

How it works
A dam is built to trap water, usually in a valley
where there is an existing lake.
Water is allowed to flow through tunnels in the dam,
to turn turbines and thus drive generators.
Notice that the dam is much thicker at the bottom
than at the top, because the pressure of the water
increases with depth.

Advantages

Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free.

No waste or pollution produced.

Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power.

Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand.

Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike other
power stations.

Electricity can be generated constantly.

Disadvantages
The dams are very expensive to build.
However, many dams are also used for flood control or irrigation, so
building costs can be shared.
Building a large dam will flood a very large area upstream, causing
problems for animals that used to live there.
Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the impact on residents and the
environment may be unacceptable.
Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an
impact on plant life

Renewable energy
sources:
Geothermal

 The centre of the Earth is around 6000 degress Celsius hot enough to melt rock. Even a few kilometres down,
the temperature can be over 250 degrees Celsius.
In general, the temperature rises one degree Celsius for
every 36 metres you go down.
In volcanic areas, molten rock can be very close to the
surface.
Geothermal energy has been used for thousands of
years in some countries for cooking and heating.

The name "geothermal" comes from two Greek words:

"geo" means "Earth" and "thermal" means "heat".

How it works
Hot rocks underground heat water to produce steam.
We drill holes down to the hot region, steam comes up, is
purified and used to drive turbines, which drive electric
generators.
There may be natural "groundwater" in the hot rocks anyway,
or we may need to drill more holes and pump water down to
them.

Advantages
Geothermal energy does not produce any pollution, and does not contribute
to the greenhouse effect.
The power stations do not take up much room, so there is not much impact
on the environment.
No fuel is needed.
Once you've built a geothermal power station, the energy is almost free.
It may need a little energy to run a pump, but this can be taken from the
energy being generated

Disadvantages
The big problem is that there are not many places where you
can build a geothermal power station.
You need hot rocks of a suitable type, at a depth where we can
drill down to them.
The type of rock above is also important, it must be of a type
that we can easily drill through.
Sometimes a geothermal site may "run out of steam", perhaps
for decades.
Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from
underground, and can be difficult to safely dispose of.