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Modern Chemistry - Chapter 23
Modern Chemistry - Chapter 23
Modern Chemistry - Chapter 23
Preview
Lesson Starter
Objectives
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Chapter 23
Lesson Starter
Why does the can of diet soft drink float and the can
of regular soft drink sink?
The aspartame used to sweeten the diet soft drink is
about 200 times as sweet as sucrose.
The regular soft drink is denser than the diet soft
drink, because there is such a large amount of sugar
in the regular soft drink, and only a small amount of
sweetener in the diet soft drink.
Chapter 23
Objectives
Describe the structural characteristics of simple
carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates.
Explain the role of carbohydrates in living systems.
Describe the structural characteristics of lipid
molecules.
Identify the functions of lipids in living cells.
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1 ratio,
and provide nutrients to the cells of living things.
sugars, starches, and cellulose
Carbohydrates are produced by plants through a
process called photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates provide nearly all of the energy that is
available in most plant-derived food.
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Types of Carbohydrates
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates, continued
Monosaccharides
A monosaccharide is a simple sugar that is the
basic subunit of a carbohydrate.
A single monosaccharide molecule contains three to
seven carbon atoms.
Monosaccharide compounds are
typically sweet-tasting
white solids at room temperature
water soluble
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates, continued
Monosaccharides, continued
The most common
monosaccharides are
glucose (also called
dextrose) and fructose.
Both have the formula
C6(H2O)6.
Their structural formulas
differ.
Chapter 23
Structures of Carbohydrates
Chapter 23
Monosaccharides
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates, continued
Disaccharides
A disaccharide is a sugar that consists of two
monosaccharide units that are joined together.
sucrose, C12H22O11
A molecule of sucrose forms when a glucose molecule
bonds to a fructose molecule.
lactose
Lactose is made up of a sugar called galactose and
glucose.
Chapter 23
Disaccharides
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates, continued
Carbohydrate Reactions
Carbohydrates undergo two important kinds of
reactions: condensation reactions and hydrolysis
reactions.
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates, continued
Carbohydrate Reactions, continued
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction between water
and another substance to form two or more new
substances.
Disaccharides and longer-chain polysaccharides
can be broken down into smaller sugar units by
hydrolysis.
Chapter 23
Cation Hydrolysis
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Anion Hydrolysis
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates, continued
Polysaccharides
When many monosaccharides or disaccharides
combine in a series of condensation reactions, they
form a polysaccharide.
A polysaccharide is a carbohydrate made up of long
chains of simple sugars.
Cellulose, starch, and glycogen are polymers of
glucose.
Sheets of cellulose make up plant cell walls.
Starch is the storage form of glucose in plants.
Chapter 23
Carbohydrates, continued
Polysaccharides, continued
Glycogen, cellulose, and starch differ in their
arrangement of glucose monomers.
Chapter 23
Lipids
A lipid is a type of biochemical that does not dissolve
in water, has a high percentage of C and H atoms,
and is soluble in nonpolar solvents.
As a class, lipids are not nearly as similar to each
other as carbohydrates are.
Long-chain fatty acids, phospholipids, steroids, and
cholesterol are lipids.
Chapter 23
Types of Lipids
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Lipids, continued
Fatty Acids and Triglycerides
Fatty acids consist of a long, nonpolar hydrocarbon
tail and a polar carboxylic acid functional group at
the head.
HO
hydrophilic region
hydrophobic region
Chapter 23
Lipids, continued
Fatty Acids and Triglycerides, continued
Triglycerides are formed by condensation reactions in
which three fatty acid molecules bond to one glycerol (a
type of alcohol) molecule.
Fats and oils that are the most common group of lipids in your
diet.
Because they have a large amount of saturated fatty acids,
fats are solids at room temperature.
Oils have more unsaturated fatty acids than fats, and are
Fat
is stored in adipose tissue until it is needed as an
liquids
energy source.
Chapter 23
Lipids, continued
Fatty Acids and Triglycerides, continued
When a fat combines with NaOH, an acid-base reaction
called saponification occurs, and a salt and water
form.
This salt is made up of molecules that have long
carboxylic acid chains and is called soap.
Lipids that react with a base to form soap are called
saponifiable lipids, which include fats, oils, and fatty
acids.
Chapter 23
Lipids, continued
Other Important Lipids
Compound saponifiable lipids play an important
role in biochemical processes.
These lipids are structurally similar to triglycerides in that
at least one fatty acid is bonded to the central glycerol or
glycerol-like unit.
These molecules may also have phosphate groups,
sugar units, or nitrogen containing groups.
Chapter 23
Lipids, continued
Other Important Lipids, continued
Phospholipids are arranged in a bilayer, or double layer,
at the surface of the cell.
Chapter 23
Lipids, continued
Other Important Lipids, continued
Nonsaponifiable lipids are nonpolar compounds that do
not form soap.
steroids, many vitamins, and bile acids
Cholesterol is a steroid present in animal cell
membranes and is a precursor of many hormones.
Chapter 23
Preview
Lesson Starter
Objectives
Amino Acids
Proteins
Proteins as Enzymes
Chapter 23
Lesson Starter
carboxylic acid
RCOH
amine
RNR
R
H
H
OH
C
O
OH
H
N
H
H
+ H2O
OH
C
O
Chapter 23
Objectives
Describe the basic structure of amino acids and the
formation of polypeptides.
Determine the significance of amino acid side chains
to the three-dimensional structure of a protein and
the function of a protein.
Describe the functions of proteins in cells.
Identify the effects of enzymes on biological
molecules.
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Amino Acids
OH
H
N
H
H
or
C
O
H2 N
COOH
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Amino Acid
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
OH
H
N
OH
H
N
H
H
OH
+ H 2O
C
O
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Proteins
Proteins are the most complex and varied class of
biochemical molecules.
A protein is an organic biological polymer that is
made up of polypeptide chains of 50 or more amino
acids and is an important building block of all cells.
Proteins are made up of specific sequences of amino acids.
They have molecular masses that range from 6000 to more
milliondifferent
atomic protein
mass units.
than
About9 9000
molecules are found in
cells in the human body.
Chapter 23
Proteins
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Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Nitrogen accounts for about 15% of the mass of a
protein molecule. Most proteins also contain sulfur.
Some contain phosphorus or other elements, such as
iron, zinc, and copper.
Proteins have many important catalytic, structural,
regulatory, and antibody defense functions.
Keratin is the main component of hair and fingernails.
Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions.
Hemoglobin carries oxygen in the blood.
Insulin regulates glucose levels.
Antibodies protect the body from foreign substances.
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Arrangement of Amino Acids in Peptides and Proteins
Each peptide, polypeptide, or protein is made up of a
special sequence of amino acids.
A simple set of three-letter abbreviations is used to
represent each amino acid in these kinds of molecules.
The tripeptide made up of valine, asparagine, and histidine
would be written as ValAspHis.
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Amino Acid Side-Chain Reactions
The properties of amino acidsand ultimately
polypeptides and proteinsdepend on the
properties of the side chains present.
The side chain of glutamic acid is acidic.
The side chain of histidine is basic.
The side chains of asparagine and several other amino
acids are polar.
Some amino acid side chains can form ionic or covalent
bonds with other side chains.
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Amino Acid Side-Chain Reactions, continued
Cysteine is a unique amino acid, because the SH
group in cysteine can form a covalent bond with
another cysteine side chain to form a disulfide bridge.
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Shape and Structure of Protein Molecules
The interaction of amino acid side chains determines
the shape and structure of proteins.
These are important to the proteins biological
functions.
In a polypeptide chain or protein, the sequence of the
amino acids is called the primary (1) structure.
The secondary (2) structure describes how the chain
is coiled or otherwise arranged in space.
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Shape and Structure of Protein Molecules, continued
Secondary structures form because hydrogen
bonding occurs between a hydrogen atom attached to
the nitrogen atom in one peptide bond and the
oxygen atom of another peptide bond farther down
the backbone of the protein.
The alpha () helix is a secondary structure that
resembles a coiled spring.
The beta () pleated sheet is a secondary
structure that has accordion-like folds.
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Shape and Structure of Protein Molecules, continued
A proteins characteristic three-dimensional shape is
called its tertiary (3) structure.
Side-chain interactions at various positions along
the protein backbone cause the tertiary structure.
The side-chain interactions can include
hydrogen bonding
salt bridges
cysteine-cysteine disulfide bonds
hydrophobic interactions between nonpolar side chains
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Shape and Structure of Protein Molecules, continued
Nonpolar side groups tend to be found in the interior
of the protein where contact with water is minimal.
Polar and ionic side chains tend to be on the protein
surface, where they are in contact with water.
In some proteins, different polypeptides, each of
which has its own 3 structure, come together.
In the case of hemoglobin, four different
polypeptides make up the quaternary (4)
structure.
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Biological Functions of Proteins
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Biological Functions of Proteins, continued
Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water and are long,
thin, and physically strong.
Fibrous proteins give strength and protection to structures in
living things.
Keratin has a secondary structure is almost entirely alpha
helical in shape.
Collagen is a triple helix of three intertwined alpha helices. It
found in bone and tendons.
Fibrin found in silk has a beta-pleated sheet structure.
Elastins in blood tissue, fibrins in blood clots, and myosins
found in muscle tissue are other kinds of fibrous proteins.
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Biological Functions of Proteins, continued
Globular proteins are generally soluble in water and are
twisted and folded into a globe-like shape.
Globular proteins regulate body functions, catalyze reactions,
and transport substances.
Insulin is a small protein of 51 amino acids in two polypeptide
chains.
Myoglobin transports oxygen in the muscles.
Hemoglobin transports oxygen in the blood.
Casein, found in milk and used for food. It contains
phosphorus, which is needed for bone growth.
Chapter 23
Proteins, continued
Amino Acid Substitution
A single substitution of one amino acid for another can
change the shape and function of a protein.
The genetic disease sickle cell anemia can happen
when glutamic acidis replaced by valine.
Chapter 23
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Proteins as Enzymes
An enzyme is a protein that catalyzes a biochemical
reaction.
Enzymes make up the largest and most highly
specialized class of proteins.
Most enzymes are water-soluble, globular proteins.
The amino acid side chains and the three-dimensional
shape of enzymes play a very important role in the
enzymatic activity.
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Enzyme Mechanism
Chapter 23
Enzyme
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Preview
Lesson Starter
Objectives
ATP: Energy for the Cell
Energy Activities
Catabolism
Anabolism
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Lesson Starter
What do you think metabolism is?
How does your body obtain energy?
Metabolism consists of all chemical reactions that
occur within an organism.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Objectives
Describe the role of ATP in cells.
Explain how energy is released by metabolic
reactions.
Summarize the relationship between anabolism and
catabolism.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Section 3 Metabolism
Chapter 23
Photosynthesis
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Chlorophyll a and b
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Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
ATP/ADP Cycle
Section 3 Metabolism
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Energy Activities
The cycle between ATP and ADP, adenosine
diphosphate, is the primary energy exchange
mechanism in the body.
ATP is the molecule that serves to carry energy from
energy-storing molecules, carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins to specific energy-requiring processes in
cells.
When ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP, energy is released to
power the cells activities.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Hydrolysis of ATP
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Catabolism
The energy that your body needs to maintain its
temperature and drive its biochemical reactions is
provided through catabolic processes.
Catabolism is the part of metabolism in which
complex compounds break down into simpler ones
and is accompanied by the release of energy.
First, enzymes break down the complex compounds
in foodcarbohydrates, fats, and proteinsinto
simpler molecules.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Catabolic Pathways
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Catabolism, continued
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth, where
the enzyme amylase in saliva begins to break down
polysaccharides.
Carbohydrates are broken down intoglucose and other
monosaccharides.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Catabolism, continued
Once in the cells, glucose and other
monosaccharides, fatty acids, some amino acids, and
glycerol enter the mitochondria and feed into a
complex series of reactions called the citric acid
cycle, or Krebs cycle.
The citric acid cycle produces carbon dioxide and
other molecules, such as NADH and ATP.
This NADH and ATP then move through another set
of reactions to produce more ATP and water.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Anabolism
Cells use the simple molecules that result from the
breakdown of food to make larger, more complex
molecules.
Anabolic processes are the energy-consuming
pathways by which cells produce the molecules that
they need for sustaining life and for growth and repair.
The conversion of small biomolecules into larger ones
is called anabolism.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Anabolism, continued
In an anabolic pathway, small precursor molecules
are converted into complex molecules, including
lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Energy from ATP and NADH is necessary for these
biosynthesis reactions to occur.
Catabolism and anabolism occur simultaneously.
ATP and NADH serve as chemical links between the
two processes.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Anabolism, continued
One important anabolic pathway that is common to
animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms is
gluconeogenesis.
Glucose is synthesized in this pathway from noncarbohydrate substances.
In mammals, glucose from the blood is a fuel source.
Chapter 23
Section 3 Metabolism
Cellular Respiration
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Chapter 23
Preview
Lesson Starter
Objectives
Nucleic Acid Structure
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
Technology and Genetic Engineering
Chapter 23
Lesson Starter
To understand how DNA replicates itself and passes
genetic information to RNA to make proteins, it is
important to understand hydrogen bonding.
DNA does not duplicate itself by making an identical
DNA molecule.
It replicates by unfolding its two strands, which then
pair up with complementary nucleotides.
Each DNA molecule has one new strand and one
original strand that are complementary.
Chapter 23
Objectives
Describe the role of ATP in cells.
Explain how energy is released by metabolic
reactions.
Summarize the relationship between anabolism and
catabolism.
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
base
Chapter 23
Nucleic Acid
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Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Examples of Nucleotides
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Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
DNA Overview
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Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Structure of DNA
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Gene
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Chapter 23
Chapter 23
DNA Replication
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Chapter 23
DNA Replication
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Types of RNA
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Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
There are 64 (43) unique combinations of threebase sequences made from four bases.
Because only 20 amino acids require codes, some
of the amino acids have more than one code.
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Genetic Code
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Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Genetic Engineering
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Chapter 23
Chapter 23
DNA Fingerprint
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Visual Concept
Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Cloning
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Chapter 23
Chapter 23
Visual Concept