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Chem 102 Week A
Chem 102 Week A
Chem 102 Week A
All
College
BIMS
Science
GEST and other
Agriculture other
Engineering
Ag BICH, NUSC,
GENE
Education
Liberal Arts
Geosciences
Architecture
Business and other
459
133
114
56
25
50
100%
29%
25%
12%
5%
11%
27
15
17
15
0
5
6%
3%
4%
3%
0%
1%
501
College
Science
GEST and other
BIMS
Engineering
Agriculture other
Ag BICH, NUSC,
GENE
Liberal Arts
Education
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
graduate
240
165
32
18
2
2
459
86% pre-something
14% widely diverging
academic foci
503
199
50
24
56
24
9
100%
25%
12%
28%
12%
5%
College
BIMS
Science
GEST and other
Agriculture other
Education
260
77
64
34
16
9
100%
30%
25%
13%
6%
3%
13
7
7%
4%
26
10
10%
4%
3%
Engineering
Liberal Arts
Ag BICH, NUSC,
GENE
Business and
14
5%
TEXTBOOKS
Averill and
Hardbound
~$200
Solution Manual
~$40
Online Tutor
~$45
Total
~$285
Ebook $45 per
semester
Yvette Freeman
Publisher's Representative
Includes
Pearson Education
Text
Yvette.Freeman@Pearson.com
Helpful
Solution
Online Dictionary of Chemistry
manual
Useful
Online
As A Second Language
General Chemistry I and
tutorial
Organic Chemistry I
(There are O-chem II and Physics
http://slc.tamu.edu/
Tutoring
Supplemental Instruction
Courses
Texas Success Initiative
About Us
Contact Us
118 Hotard North of Sbisa, between
Neeley Hall and the Northside Post Office
(979) 845-2724
The Student Learning Center has won the 2008 National College Learning Center Association
Frank L. Christ Outstanding Learning Center Award!
The award recognizes the center's commitment to supporting and strengthening the
Academic experience of students at Texas A&M University by providing a variety of programs and
services that promote retention and success. Read more...
The Student Learning Center provides Supplemental Instruction and tutoring free of charge to all
Texas A&M University students. The SLC oversees the STLC courses (formerly CAEN), which teach
students how to improve their study skills and prepare for the job market. The SLC manages
Developmental programs for students who have not yet passed the assessment tests required by the state.
Study Tips
General
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Reading Textbooks
Setting Goals
Preparing for Exams
Success Tips from Fellow Aggies
Tutoring
During the Fall 2008 semester, drop-in tutoring will be offered Sunday nights 5-8pm and Monday through Thursday
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A+
+
A+
A
B
C
D
F
F-
1)
2)
3)
4)
>2
>1
>0
<0
<-1
<-2
<-3
2.1%
13.6%
34.1%
34.1%
13.6%
2.1%
0.1%
1.4%
18.5%
32.7%
31.3%
14.7%
1.4%
0.0%
0.4%
19.9%
33.7%
28.7%
14.9%
1.0%
0.0%
0.6%
13.5%
25.7%
34.1%
20.9%
1.8%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
Grading:
Your grade will be based on
Four one-hour examinations (200 raw points
T score 100+)
A final examination (400 raw points 2 x T
score
100+) Examination Schedule
Major
Spring 2011:
Major Exam No.1
Mon. Feb. 7
Wed. Mar. 2
Wed. Apr. 13
Fri. Apr. 29
Final Exams
Section 501
Fri. May 6, 10:00 to
Section 503
Mon. May 9, 10:30
molecules
INTERmolecular forces.
Forces between molecules,
between ions, or between
molecules and ions.
Ion-Ion Forces
for comparison of
magnitude
Na+Cl- in salt
These are the
strongest forces.
Lead to solids with
high melting
temperatures.
NaCl, mp = 800 oC
MgO, mp = 2800 oC
Ion Permanent
Dipole
Attractions
water
dipole
O
H
H +
hydrated ions
Attraction
Between Ions and
Permanent
Dipoles
Many metal
ions are hydrated.
This is the reason metal
salts dissolve in water.
Attraction
Between Ions and
Permanent
Dipoles
Attraction between ions and dipole depends on
ion charge and ion-dipole distance.
Measured by H for Mn+ + H2O --> [M(H2O)x]n+
H
O
H
+
Mg2+
H
O
H
+
H
O
H
+
Na +
Cs+
-263 kJ/mol
Dipole-Dipole
Forces
Such forces bind molecules having
permanent dipoles to one another.
Influence of dipole-dipole
forces is seen in the boiling
points of simple molecules.
Compd
Mol. Wt. Boil Point
N2
28
-196 oC
CO
Br2
28
160
-192 oC
59 oC
ICl
162
97 oC
Interactions in Liquid
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
solutes
Solutions
1. Hydrophilic substance is polar and contains OH or NH groups that can form hydrogen bonds to water;
tend to be very soluble in water and other strongly polar solvents
2. Hydrophobic substance may be polar but usually contains CH bonds that do not interact favorably with
water; essentially insoluble in water and soluble in nonpolar solvents
Hydrogen Bonding
A special form of dipole-dipole attraction,
which enhances dipole-dipole attractions.
H-bonding is
especially strong
in water because
the OH bond is
very polar
there are 2 lone
pairs on the O
atom
Accounts for many
of waters unique
properties.
Hydrogen Bonding in
H2O
Boiling Points of
Simple HydrogenContaining
Compounds
Double helix
of DNA
Portion of a
DNA chain
H-bonding is especially strong in biological systems such as
DNA.
DNA helical chains of phosphate groups and sugar molecules.
Chains are helical because of tetrahedral geometry of P, C, and O.
Chains bind to one another by specific hydrogen bonding between
pairs of Lewis bases.
FORCES INVOLVING
INDUCED DIPOLES
Dipole-induced
Dipole-induced
dipole
dipole
dissolving
in ethanol,
I-I CH3CH2OH.
R
Solubility increases with mass the gas
O
H
The alcohol
temporarily
creates or
INDUCES a
dipole in I2.
I-I
+
O
H
+
FORCES INVOLVING
INDUCED DIPOLES
Formation of a dipole in two nonpolar I2
molecules.
Induced dipole-induced dipole
FORCES INVOLVING
INDUCED DIPOLES
The magnitude of the induced dipole
depends on the tendency to be distorted.
Higher molec. weight larger induced
dipoles.
Molecule
Boiling Point (oC)
CH4 (methane)
- 161.5
C2H6 (ethane) - 88.6
C3H8 (propane)
- 42.1
C4H10 (butane)
- 0.5
Intermolecular Forces
Summary
Vapor Pressure
When the liquid is heated, its molecules obtain sufficient kinetic energy to
overcome the forces holding them in the liquid and they escape into the
gaseous phase.
The result of this phenomenon is that the molecules from the liquid phase
generate a population of molecules in the vapor phase above the liquid that
produces a pressure called the vapor pressure of the liquid.
Plotting the fraction of molecules with a given KE against their KE gives
the KE distribution of the molecules in the liquid.
Increasing the temperature increases both
the average KE of the particles in a liquid
and the range of KE for the molecules.
Molecules with KE greater than Eo
can escape from the liquid to enter
the vapor phase
Molecules must also be at the surface
where it is physically possible for the
molecule to leave the liquid surface.
alcohol
O
C2H5
dipole dipole
H5C2
Hbonds
water
O
H
extensive Hbonds
increasingstrengthofIMinteractions
Liquids
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION is the heat reqd
(at constant P) to vaporize the liquid.
LIQ + heat VAP
Compd.
Hvap (kJ/mol) IM Force
H 2O
bonds
SO2
Xe
dipole
Hdipole
induced
Phase Diagrams
Phase Equilibria
Water
Solid-liquid
Gas-Liquid
Gas-Solid
Triple
Point
Water
Phases Diagrams
Important Points
for Water
T(C)
P(mmHg)
Normal boil point
100
Normal freeze point 0
Triple point
0.0098
760
760
4.58
Critical T and P
As P and T increase, you finally reach the CRITICAL T and P
Pcritical
Notethatline
goesstraightup
HighPressure
LIQUID
GAS
HighTemperature
Above critical T no
liquid exists no
matter how high the
pressure. The gas
Tcritical
and liquid phases are
intermixed and
indistinguishable.
Terminology and
Supercritical Fluids
Critical temperature (Tc)
Solid-Liquid Equilibria
ICE
P
Solid
H 2O
Liquid
H 2O
favoredat
lowP
Normal
freezing
point
760
mmHg
0C
LIQUIDH 2O
favoredat
highP
T
The behavior of water under pressure is an example of LE
CHATELIERS PRINCIPLE At Solid/Liquid equilibrium,
raising P squeezes the solid.
It In
responds
by going to phase with greater density, i.e., the
any system, if you increase P the DENSITY will go up.
liquid
phase.
Therefore
as P goes up, equilibrium favors phase with
the larger density (or SMALLER volume/gram).
Changes of State
Changes of state are examples of phase changes,
or phase transitions
Any of the three forms of matter (gas, liquid,
solid) is converted to either of the other two
Six most common phase changes:
1. melting
solid liquid
2. freezing
liquid solid
3. vaporization
liquid gas
4. condensation
gas
liquid
5. sublimation
solid gas
6. deposition
gas
solid
Temperatu
re Curves
Heating Curve A plot of temperature
versus time where heat is added
Temperature Curves
Units of Concentration
1. Molarity Useful way to describe solution concentrations for reactions that are carried out in solution or for
titrations. Volume of a solution depends on its density, which is a function of temperature
Molarity = moles of solute = mol/L = mmol/mL
liter of solution
2. Molality Concentration of a solution can also be described by its molality (m), the number of moles of solute
per kilogram of solvent. Depends on the masses of the solute and solvent, which are independent of temperature.
Molality = moles of solute
kilogram solvent
Mole fraction Used to describe gas concentrations and determine the vapor pressures of mixtures of similar
liquids. Depends on only the masses of the solute and solvent and is temperature independent. Mole fractions sum
to one for a given mixture.
Mole fraction ( ) =
moles of component
.
total moles in the solution
4. Mass percentage (%) The ratio of the mass of the solute to the total mass of the solution. Result can be
expressed as mass percentage, parts per million (ppm), or parts per billion (ppb). ppm and ppb are used for highly
dilute solutions, and correspond to milligrams (10-3) and micrograms (10-6) of solute per kilogram of solution,
respectively
mass percentage = mass of solute 100%
mass of solution
parts per million (ppm)= mass of solute 106
mass of solution
parts per billion (ppb)= mass of solute 109
mass of solution
Units of Concentration
Mass percentage and parts per million or
billion can express the concentrations of
substances even if their molecular mass is
unknown because these are simply different
ways of expressing the ratios of the mass of a
solute to the mass of the solution
Plots of the vapor pressures of both components versus the mole fractions are straight lines
that pass through the origin.
A plot of the total vapor pressure of the solution versus the mole fraction is a straight line that
represents the sum of the vapor pressures of the pure components.
The vapor pressure of the solution is always greater than the vapor pressure of either
component.
Solutions that obey Raoults law are called ideal solutions, in which the intermolecular
forces in the two pure liquids are almost identical in both kind and magnitude and the change
in enthalpy on solution formation is essentially zero (Hsoln 0).
Real solutions exhibit positive or negative deviations from Raoults law because the
intermolecular interactions between the two components A and B differ.
Negative deviation
If the AB interactions are stronger than the AA and BB interactions, each component of the solution
exhibits a lower vapor pressure than expected for an ideal solution, as does the solution as a whole.
The favorable AB interactions stabilize the solution compared with the vapor.
Positive deviation
If the AB interactions are weaker than the AA and BB interactions yet the entropy increase is enough
to allow the solution to form, both A and B have an increased tendency to escape from the solution into
the vapor phase.
The result is a higher vapor pressure than expected for an ideal solution.
Effect of Temperature on
the Solubility
Fractional Distillation
Distillation is a technique used
to separate solutions that have
two or more volatile components
with differing boiling points.
A simple distillation has a
single distilling column.
Simple distillations give reasonable
separations.
External pressure has little effect on the solubility of liquids and solids. The
solubility of gases increases as the partial pressure of the gas above a solution
increases.
The concentration of molecules in the gas phase increases with increasing pressure, as
does the concentration of dissolved gas molecules in the solution at equilibrium at
higher pressures.
Henrys Law: C = kP, where C is the concentration of dissolved gas at equilibrium; P
is the partial pressure; and k is the Henrys law constant, which is determined
experimentally for each combination of gas, solvent, and temperature: units are M/atm.
Concentration of a gas in water at a given pressure depends strongly on its physical
properties.
Gases that react chemically with water do not obey Henrys law; all of these gases are
much more soluble than predicted by Henrys law
Colligative Properties of
Solutions
Boiling-Point Elevation
The normal boiling point of a substance is the temperature at
which the vapor pressure equals 1 atm.
Because the vapor pressure of the solution at a given
temperature is lower than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent,
achieving a vapor pressure of 1 atm for the solution requires a
higher temperature than the normal boiling point of the solvent.
The boiling point of a solution is always higher than that of the
pure solvent.
The magnitude of the increase in the boiling point is related to
the magnitude of the decrease in the vapor pressure; the
decrease in the vapor pressure is proportional to the
concentration of the solute in solution.
Freezing Point
Depression
Dissolving a nonvolatile solute in water not only raises the
boiling point of the water but also lowers its freezing point.
Freezing-point depression depends on the total number of
dissolved nonvolatile solute particles.
The molar mass of an unknown compound can be determined by
measuring the freezing point of a solution that contains a known
mass of solute, which is accurate for dilute solutions.
Changes in the boiling point are smaller than changes in the
freezing point for a given solvent, so boiling point elevations are
difficult to measure and are not used to determine molar mass.
The freezing-point depression (Tf) is defined as the difference
between the freezing point of the pure solvent and the freezing
point of the solution:
Relationship for freezing point depression is:
Freezing Point
Depression
Colligative Properties of
Electrolyte Solutions
Freezing Point
Depression
Notice the similarity of the two relationships for freezing
point depression and boiling point elevation.
Freezing Point
Depression
Calculate the freezing point of a solution that contains 8.50 g of benzoic acid
(C6H5COOH, MW = 122) in 75.0 g of benzene, C6H6.
Determination of Molecular
Weight by Freezing Point
Depression
Determination of Molecular
Weight by Freezing Point
A 37.0 g sample of a Depression
new covalent compound, a nonelectrolyte, was dissolved
in 2.00 x 102 g of water. The resulting solution froze at -5.58 oC. What is the
molecular weight of the compound?
Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is the net flow of solvent through a
membrane due to different solute concentrations; the
direction of net solvent flow is always from higher
solvent concentration to lower solvent concentration or
from the side with the lower concentration of solute to
the side with the higher solute concentration.
Osmosis is a rate controlled phenomenon. The flow
from high to low solvent is faster than low to high
solvent concentration until equilibrium is reached.
Osmotic pressure () of a solution depends on the
concentration of dissolved solute particles:
Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic Pressure
A 1.00 g sample of a biological material was dissolved
in enough water to give 1.00 x 102 mL of solution. The
osmotic pressure of the solution was 2.80 torr at 25oC.
Calculate the molarity and approximate molecular
weight of the material.
Solutions of Solids
Solutions are not limited to gases and liquids; solid solutions also
exist.
Amalgams, which are usually solids, are solutions of metals in
liquid mercury.
Network solids are insoluble in all solvents with which they do
not react chemically; covalent bonds that hold the network
together are too strong to be broken and are much stronger than
any combination of intermolecular interactions that might occur
in solution.
Most metals are insoluble in all solvents but do react with
solutions such as aqueous acid or base to produce a solution; in
these cases the metal undergoes a chemical transformation that
cannot be reversed by removing the solvent.
Aggregate Particles in
Aqueous
Solution
A mixture of gases is the only combination of
substances that cannot produce a suspension or colloid
because their particles are small and form true
solutions
Interactions in Liquid
Solutions
All common organic liquids, whether polar or not, are miscible; the
strengths of the intermolecular attractions are comparable, the
enthalpy of solution is small, and the increase in entropy drives the
formation of a solution.
If predominant intermolecular interactions in two liquids are very
different from one another, they may be immiscible, and when
shaken with water, they form separate phases or layers separated by
an interface.
Only the three lightest alcohols are completely miscible with
water; as the molecular mass of the alcohol increases, so does the
proportion of hydrocarbon in the molecule, which leads to fewer
favorable electrostatic interactions with water
Emulsions
Micelles