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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Principle 2 - The Acquisition of Skills and the Biomechanics

of Movement

Key Concept 2 : Specific Factors Affecting

Learning

The nature of the task

Practice and feedback

Environmental factors

Characteristics of the learner

Retention of learning

Timing and anticipation

ACHPER (SA)
2014

Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, SA Branch Inc.
ACHPER (SA) 2014
Published June 2014
Publisher:
Australian Council for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, SA Branch Inc.
ACHPER (SA)
105 King William St
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Key Concept 2: The Specific Factors

Affecting Learning
Sub-Concept 1 The nature of the task

ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Nature of the Task

Making a year 7 student shoot 30 three point shots in basketball with a target of 28 out
of 30 is a fairly demanding request at the best of times!
Point is that tasks or activities in sport and skill learning vary with regards to difficulty
and challenge.
Tasks in skill learning vary as seen below:
Few procedures /
variables

Many procedures /
variables

Simple

Compl
ex

Closed

Open

Predictable self
controlled
environment

Unpredictable
external controlled
environment

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Nature of the Task

Idea is the complexity and difficulty of set tasks are quite variable and this impacts on the learning of the
person undertaking it.
Model by Czikszentmihalyi in 1977 shows impact of a task on learning.
It postulates that an activity set for learners should present an element of challenge within the
capabilities of the learner.
Can be seen below :

Optimal Learning Zone

If challenge is too great, anxiety and worry affect performance and learning.

If the challenge is too low, boredom and frustration will be detrimental to performance and learning.

Model suggests an optimal zone for effective learning

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Nature of the Task

Tasks need to be constructed to allow a sequenced attainable level of development

as seen below gradual challenge allows maximal development of skill towards
mastery.

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Text Pages 28

Challenge is
progressive.
Each step allows
development at a
suitable level.
Ultimately mastery
or high level
competence is
achieved.
Key is to ensure
progressions are
suitable to the level
of the learner

ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Nature of the Task

Skill
Technique
(task) being
undertaken

The Ability of
the Learner

Outcome
success of the
learning or
performance

This is emphasised in the diagram above.

The nature or rate of learning depends on this as well.

This is covered in more detail in the section on Models of coaching in the psychology
section.

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Nature of the Task

A number of factors have an impact or can affect the difficultly of a task and the
achievement of learning including:
Cognitive
Demands
-level of thinking
- information to be
processed

Motor Demands
- movements
required
-sequence and
complexity

Factors
Impactin
g on
Task
Difficulty

Safety Concerns
-- the
risk of
the risk
of the
the task
task to
to
the
the learner
learner
-- the
the nature
nature of
of the
the
environment
environment and
and
equipment
equipment

Physical Demands
-fitness / strength
needed
- the physical
development of the
learner

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Nature of the Task

Ultimate consideration in skill learning is to maximise the outcome from the task in relation
to the learner.

Modification of (a) rules (b) playing areas (c) equipment (d) expectations and (e) instruction
need to be considered carefully.

The student is a beginner (cognitive learner) in badminton.

The game consists of many opened and closed skills.

The coach is teaching the player an open skill- a net kill requires the player to hit the

shuttle
sharply
at therelative
net. to the level of the
To
makedown
learning
process
learner the open skill is made more closed, in essence
he takes some of the difficulty out of it.

Done by feeding (throwing) the shuttle to the player at

the same height and speed each time.

C o a c h

P la y e r

Reduces the amount of information processing and cue

detection the learner needs to do- the task is simplified.

C o a c h f e e d s s h u t t le b y h a n d a t s a m
s a m e s p e e d a n d s a m e a r e a e a c h

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

Text Pages 29

e h e ig h t ,
t im e .

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Nature of the Task

Case Study Changing the task in relation to the learner

The following case study shows three different drills used by a netball team for the skill of
goal shooting.
1. Identify the drill most suited to a beginner.
Answer = Drill 1
2.

Explain a reason for your selection.

Answer = It has the lowest perceptual demands it is the easiest to do

because it is simple few

things to think about
Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

The Nature of the Task

Case Study Changing the task in relation to the learner

3. Explain why the beginner could not do drill 3

Answer = perceptual demands (what they have to do) are too great and difficult
4. An elite netballer is expected to get a score of 9 out of 10 minimum for drill 3. Is this
expectation too difficult in
relation to the task?
Answer = High level learner has a high competency in the technique of
shooting. This allows them to
spend more time on areas such as tactics. The perceptual demands are not
Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning
beyond the performer
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Key Concept 2: The Specific Factors

Affecting Learning
Sub-Concept 2 Practice and Feedback

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Practice related to skill learning, performance and mastery involves many things.

It is the rehearsal of an activity or behaviour with the goal of improving or mastering

it.

It is an important part of the skill learning involving a number of facets:

Instructing

Applying

Demonstrating

Informatio
n about
what to
do

See how
to do it

Practicing
what to
do

Informatio
n about
progress
(feedback
)

Confirming

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

In fact many authorities or experts believe practice or applying
above is the most important component because it involves doing
the skill.
There are a number of types of practice, or the methods used.
These are usually selected based on difference situations involved
in skill learning (e.g. open or closed).
As well as the level of the learner.

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Types of Practice

FIXED PRACTICE

MASSED PRACTICE

Characteristics
This type of practice involves drills.
The drills are repeatedly practiced in the quest to
master the movements and techniques involved.
This type of practice is best used for discrete, closed
skills.
Many texts refer to this type of practice.
Basically it is a continuous form of practice best used
for either (a) simple skills or (b) continual repetition of
a component skill needed in a game. e.g. a
professional tennis player spending 30 minutes
practicing their backhand to correct a technique
problem.
It is also a technique used to produce fatigue in a
player to reinforce or develop focus in such conditions
for a game.

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Types of Practice

Characteristics
This type of practice involves repeating a skill in a
changeable (dynamic) environment.
Essentially these changes reflect those found when
VARIABLE PRACTICE
skills or techniques are used in a game
This type of practice is common in many sports because
it develops the flexibility involved in skill execution
needed in games.
Like its counter-part in 3 it is one of the more common
and popular forms of practice.
Essentially the skill or technique is practiced in blocks
of time followed by time blocks of rest.
This type of practice is excellent for difficult skills or to
keep motivation high and feedback constant in
DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE
learners.
An example would be someone taking 10 shots at a
goal followed by 5 minutes of rest or recovery. This is
then repeated.
The number of times this is repeated depends on the
As already emphasised the selection of the type of practice used for a learner depends on a
levelofofpractice
the learner.
number of key factors. Poor selection
types means the learning experience will
be negative rather than positive.
Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and Feedback - Practice

Case Study the selection of practice and performance outcome
Two students were given the task of throwing a ball underarm at a target 4 metres away
(as seen in diagram 10) Each throw was given a score out of 5 with a bullseye scoring
5and the outer ring 1. Both had to compete 50 throws with an average score from each
set being recorded.
5
4.5

There were 5
T h e r e w e re 5 ta rg e t z o n e s
target zones the
t h e c e n t r e w o r t h 5 w it h 4
centre worth 5
p o r g r e s s iv e r in g s t o a lo w
with 4 progressive
o u te r s c o re o f 1 .
rings to a low
outer score of 1.

Average Score for Trial

(maximum score is 5)

P la y e r s w e r e r e q u ir e d t o c o m p le t e
5 s e ts o f 1 0 s h o ts a t a ta r g e t. T h e
av erag e sc o re o u t o f 1 0 w as
rec o rd ed .

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1

Trials (each trial consists of 5 shots)

Player A Player B

Player A did the 50 throws without a break, whilst player B did 10 throws followed by a 2
minute break, 5 times. The graph above shows their scores:

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

1. Identify the student who used a massed practice method.
Answer = Player B
2. State a reason for the selection
Answer = They did 50 throws without a break. This constitutes a
massed practice
3. Identify the practice method that produced the best results (outcomes)
Answer = The 10 throws followed by a 2 minute break 5 times.
(distributed practice)
4. State and explain 2 reasons for the selection made in question 3
Reason 1: The 2 minute break allowed a rest to avoid fatigue.
Reason 2: The 2 minute break allowed the performer to get feedback
and reflect on what they
were doing
5. State whether the task was fixed or variable
Answer = Fixed
Key
The Specific
Affecting
6. Concept
Explain 3:
a reason
for theFactors
selection
made in Learning
question 5
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Feedback essential process in skill learning and mastery.

It is the information a skill performer, regardless of learning stage

or level, receives about what they have already done during skill
execution (performance).

Many define this process as the information resulting from an

action.
It is important in refining the procedural knowledge involved in skill
execution and development the knowledge of knowing what to do
and how to do it.

Feedbac
k

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Feedback has 3 main functions :
Motivation
to do key facets of
performance
consistently and
improve poor
facets

Reinforcemen
t of Learning
acts as a positive
reinforcement for
good performance

Functio
ns of
Feedba
ck

Change
Immediate
Performance
Information leads
to an immediate
improvement in
performance

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Feedback can be delivered at a number of points in relation to skill

performance.

Prior to skill execution

Information is provided before the rehearsal / practice of a skill based
on a prior experience
e.g.: What was observed / learned during a previous training / practice
or game

During the skill execution

Information is provided throughout the rehearsal or practice of a skill
e.g.: What is needed during the execution or skill performance

Post skill execution

Information is provided after a skill training or rehearsal e.g.: What was
observed and what needs to be reinforced or changed next time

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Feedback delivery is referred to as feedback delay the time between the

performance of a skill and the delivery or reception of information.

If feedback at the conclusion of a skill (post-feedback) is too short the

learner does not have time to reconstruct (change or adapt) what they do.

If too long the information loses relevance to the performance.

If the amount of feedback is too great the performer can become too
dependant on the deliverer (coach).

Beginners need a lot of feedback and the amount of feedback reduces as

they become more proficient.

This is referred to as fading technique.

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning

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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Feedback also needs to be meaningful to the learner.

If too detailed it can be too difficult for learner to understand if limited it

can be meaningless or of no value.

Beginners need prescriptive feedback need to be told what was wrong

and what is needed to correct it.

Experienced performers need descriptive feedback they need to be made

aware or told the outcome of what has been given to them.

Feedback (Fb)
Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning
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ACHPER (SA)
2014

Practice and feedback Practice

Feedback comes in a number of forms :
Specific types of feedback are
relevant and useful to specific stage

C,
AA
C,
A
C

C,A

learners.
For example internal or intrinsic
feedback relies on the performer
feeling the movements (sub-routines)

C,
A
C,
A
C,
A

their sequence in relation to

successful performance
(kinaesthesis).
Beginner does not possess the
experience of skill development to
fully utilise and benefit from this type
of feedback.
Using the letters C=cognitive
(beginners) and A = Autonomous
(advanced) place the letters in

the columns next to the types to

Key Concept 3: The Specific Factors Affecting Learning
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