Chapter 12

Human Variation and Adaptation

 How do you define race and do you think its a

useful concept in understanding variation in our
species?
Are observable characteristics (i.e. skin color and
color of eyes) as important as the fundamental
differences among humans that are defined by
evolutionary processes?

Historical Views of Human Variation

Biological determinism - cultural and
biological variations are inherited in the same
way.
Eugenics - "race improvement" through forced
sterilization of members of some groups and
encouraged reproduction among others.

Traditional Concept of Race

Since the 1600s, race has been used to refer to
culturally defined groups.
Race is used as a biological term, but has
enormous social significance.
In any racial group, there will be individuals who
fall into the normal range of variation for
another group for one or several characteristics.
Polytypic species

Intelligence
Genetic and environmental factors contribute to
intelligence.
IQ scores change during a persons lifetime
Cognitive abilities are polygenic -- measured by
many genes
Nature and Nurture!

Human Polymorphisms
Genetic traits with different phenotypic
expressions
A cline is a gradual change in the frequency of a
trait or allele in populations dispersed over
geographical space.
Clinal distributions are thought to reflect natural
selection and/or gene flow.

Polymorphisms at the DNA Level

Scattered through the human genome are
microsatellites, sites where DNA segments
are repeated.
Each person has a unique arrangement that
defines their distinctive DNA fingerprint.

Human Biocultural Evolution

Humans live in cultural environments that are
continually modified by their activities.
Evolutionary processes can be understood only
within this cultural context.
Lactose intolerance

Lactose Intolerance
In all human populations, infants and young
children are able to digest milk.
In most mammals, including humans, the gene
that codes for lactase production switches off
in adolescence.
The geographical distribution of lactose
tolerance is related to a history of cultural
dependence on fresh milk products.

Frequencies of Lactose Intolerance

Population Group

Percent

U.S. whites

219

Finnish

48

Swiss

12

Swedish

Frequencies of
Lactose Intolerance
Population Group

Percent

U.S. blacks

7077

Ibos

99

Bantu

90

Fulani

22

Thais

99

Asian Americans

95100

Native Americans

85

Population Genetics
The study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes,
and phenotypes in populations from a
microevolutionary perspective.
A gene pool is the total complement of genes
shared by the reproductive members of a
population.
Breeding isolates are populations that are
isolated geographically and/or socially from
other breeding groups.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
The mathematical relationship expressing the
predicted distribution of alleles in populations; the
central theorem of population genetics.
Provides a tool to establish whether allele
frequencies in a human population are changing.
1.
2.
3.

New variation (i.e., mutation)

Redistributed variation (i.e., gene flow or genetic
drift)
Selection of advantageous allele combinations that
promote reproductive success (i.e., natural
selection).

Adaptive Significance of Human

Variation
Human variation is the result of adaptations to
environmental conditions. Acclimatization
Physiological response to the environment
operates at two levels:
1. Long-term evolutionary changes
characterize all individuals within a
population or species.
2. Short-term, temporary physiological
response is called acclimatization.

Skin Color

Ultraviolet Rays
Ultraviolet Rays
penetrate the skin and
can eventually damage
DNA within skin cells.
The three major types
of cells that can be
affected are squamous
cells, basal cells, and
melanocytes.

UV Radiation
Early hominids lived in the tropics, where
solar radiation is more intense than in
temperate areas to the north and south.
Unlike modern city dwellers, early hominids
spent their days outdoors.
Early hominids didnt wear clothing that
would have protected them from the sun.
Since this is how we evolved, when dont get
enough sun, we may develop

Rickets
Insufficient amounts
of vitamin D during
childhood result in
rickets, a condition
that often leads to
bowing of the long
bones of the legs and
deformation of the
pelvis.

Thermal Environment
Mammals and birds have evolved complex
physiological mechanisms to maintain a
constant body temperature.
Humans are found in a wide variety of thermal
environments, ranging from 120 F to -60 F.
This is due to both Culture.and Biology!
Biology part (next slide)

Human Response to Heat

Long-term adaptations to heat evolved in our
ancestors:
Sweat Glands
Vasodilation capillaries near skins surface widen

Human Response to Cold

Short-term responses to cold:
Metabolic rate and shivering
Vasoconstriction to reduce blood flow to
the skin

High Altitude
Multiple factors produce stress on the human
body at higher altitudes:

Hypoxia (reduced available oxygen)

Intense solar radiation
Cold
Low humidity
Wind (which amplifies cold stress)

Bergmanns and Allens rules...

Bergmanns Rule
Body size tends to be
greater in populations
that live in cold
environments.
As mass increases, the
relative amount of surface
area decreases
proportionately.
Because heat is lost at the
surface, it follows that
increased mass allows for
greater heat retention and
reduced heat loss.

Allens Rule
In colder climates, shorter
appendages, with
increased mass-to-surface
ratios, are adaptive
because they are more
effective at preventing
heat loss.
Conversely, longer
appendages, with
increased surface area
relative to mass, are more
adaptive in warmer
climates because they
promote heat loss.