WELCOME

TOPIC: NEMATODE BIOLOGY,PHYSIOLOGY AND

ECOLOGY

Presented by : K. Sailaja , TAM/2014/21

Nematode biology :
The science of
life of living
organisms
including their
structure,
function,
growth, origin,
evolution and
distribution

Nematodes are dioceous

or amphigonus
Male and female
nematodes occur in most
species, but reproduction
without males is common.
some species are
hermaphroditic .

Parthenogenesis:
Eg. Meloidogyne,
Heterodera, Tylenchulus.
Intersexes are found in
some genera like
Meloidogyne and Ditylenchus

 The plant parasitic nematodes

have 6 stages in their life cycle.

They are
1. Egg ,

2. First stage larva/juvenile (J1)

3. Second stage larva/juvenile (J2)
4. Third stage larva/juvenile (J3)
5. Fourth stage larva/juvenile (J4) and
6. Adult

Embryogenesis occurs in two stage

in the first half of embryogenesis
Most of the cell division occurs.
In the second half,
the Embryo elongates markedly, starts
to move, and synthesizes the cuticle

Egg

is ovoid-shaped with 3
layers and contains a single
juveniles.

The majority of eggs are of

similar size (50100 m long
and 2050 m wide) and
morphology.

Eggs between 50 and 500

eggs per female, depending
on the nematode species and
their environment, but some
can produce more than 1,000
eggs.

Juveniles hatch from eggs

that are laid by the adult
female

These juveniles are similar to

C H A IN O F EV EN TS FR O M EG G TO
EG G

The length of the life cycle

varies considerably,
depending on nematode
species, host plant, and the
temperature of the habitat.
Generally Life cycle from egg
to egg completes in 20-40
days .
Ex; 1month :RKN
2weeks:foliar nematode
1year :dagger nematode
During summer months when
soil temperatures are 80 to
90F, many plant nematodes
complete their life cycle in
about four weeks

M O U LTIN G
Increase in body size as growth takes place
between moults.
The cuticle is shed and replaced four times
during the life cycle.
some species of Longidorus and Xiphinema
have only three juvenile stage.
In Aphelenchus hamatus, the moulting process
from fourth-stage juvenile (J4) to adult took 12
13 h to complete (Wright and Perry, 1991).

In general, the process

involves three phases:
(i) the separation of the old cuticle from
the epidermis (apolysis);
(ii) the formation of a new cuticle from
the epidermis; and
(iii) the shedding of the old cuticle
(ecdysis)..

MOULTING

HATCHING
Essentially, the hatching process can be divided into three phases:

changes in the eggshell;

activation of the juvenile; and

eclosion (or hatch from the egg).

In many species, such as Meloidogyne spp., activation of the

juvenile appears to precede, and may even cause, changes in
eggshell structure.

in others, such as G. rostochiensis, alteration of eggshell

permeability characteristics appears a necessary pre-requisite
for metabolic, and consequent locomotory changes in the
juvenile.

Hatching of nematodes is reviewed in detail by Jones et al.

(1998) and Perry (2002)

Flow diagram showing events in the

hatching process of second-stage juveniles
of Globodera rostochiensis after stimulation
with potato root diffusate
Hatch

stimulation

Unhatched

quiescent juvenile in cyst

Ca2+-mediated

change in eggshell

permeability
Loss

of trehalose from the perivitelline

fluid
Uptake

of water by juvenile

Juvenile

becomes metabolically active

Enhanced juvenile
activity
Exploratory stylet
probing
Sub-polar slit cut in
eggshell by stylet
Juvenile hatches
from the egg
Further water
uptake to full
hydration
Emergence of
juvenile from the
cyst

Life cycle pattern- Mode of

feeding
Migratory

ectoparasitic
Migratory endoparasitic
Sedentary endoparasitic
Semiendoparasitic

Ectoparasitic
N em atodes
Remains outside of the

plant and uses its stylet

to feed from the cells
Uses strategy by which
they can graze on
numerous plants.
Very susceptible to
environmental
fluctuations and
predators.
Have extremely long

Migratory
ectoparasitic
These are motile and
feeds on external
surface cells of roots.
Eggs are laid in soils
only
All moults takes place in
soils /root.
All stages are motile
and feeds on roots.
Causes terminal galls in
the roots and cause

M igratory Endoparasitic
N em atodes

Spend much of their time migrating

through root tissues destructively feeding
on plant cells .
Cause massive plant tissue necrosis.
All motile stages are infective.
Secondary infection by bacteria and fungi
(Zunke 1991).
Examples are Pratylenchus (lesion
nematode), Radopholus (burrowing
nematodes) and Hirschmanniella (rice
root nematode).

ECTOPARASIT
IC

ENDOPARASIT
IC

Sedentary
Endoparasitic
Most damaging nematodes in the
world have a sedentary
endoparasitic life style.

The cyst nematodes (Heterodera

and Globodera) and the rootknot nematodes (Meloidogyne).

Juveniles becomes sedentary

because their somatic muscles
atrophy.

The juveniles feed, enlarge and

molt three times to the adult
stage.

The large feeding cells formed

by these nematodes plug the
vascular tissue of the plant
making it susceptible to water

soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines

Sem iEndoparasites:
N em atodes
They are able to

partially penetrate the

plant and feed at some
point in their life cycle.
nematodes swell and
do not move.
risk of death if their
host plant dies
EX: Rotylenchulus
reniformis,
Tylenchulus
semipenetrans

Survival
Many

nematode species are able to

survive
under extreme abiotic conditions at very
low or high soil temperatures (McSorley,
2003; Treonis and Wall, 2005) or at 0%
relative humidity (Wall and Virginia,
1999).
To survive unfavourable conditions, some
nematodes are able to suspend
development and survive in a dormant
state until favourable conditions return.
(D.J. Wright and R.N. Perry)

DORMANCY

Subdivided into quiescence and diapause.

Quiescence is a spontaneous reversible response to

unpredictable unfavourable environmental conditions
and release from quiescence occurs when favourable
conditions return.

Quiescence can be facultative or obligate.

Adverse environmental conditions and the types of

quiescence they induce include

Cooling (cryobiosis), high temperatures

(thermobiosis), lack of oxygen (anoxybiosis), osmotic
stress (osmobiosis) and dehydration, or desiccation,
(anhydrobiosis).
(D.J. Wright and R.N.

Perry)

DIAPAUCE

Is a state of arrested development.

For cyst and root-knot nematodes it is a strategy to
overcome cyclic long-term conditions .
Obligate diapause is initiated by endogenous factors
and can be relieved by the J2 receiving exogenous
stimuli for a required period of time.
Nematodes can undergo obligate diapause only once
in their life.
Facultative diapause is initiated by exogenous, rather
than endogenous, stimuli and terminated by
endogenous factors after a critical period of time

(D.J. Wright and R.N. Perry)

CRYPTOBIOSIS OR QUIESCENCE

NEMATODE ECOLOGY
Ecological

factors influencing
nematode ecology (soil pore size,
aeration, temperature, pH , light,
moisture, osmotic pressure,
chemicals, decomposing plant
material ).

PORE SIZE

Nematodes movement is influenced by pore size.

Pore size must be more than width of nematode

body (20 m).

Ideal soils:

Sandy soils: Less porosity & Less total pore volume

Clay soils
volume

Rode : showed that the migration of juveniles of

Sandy loam soils

:

Greater porosity & Greater total pore

Globodera rostochiensis toward potato plants

was greatest in sandy soil, intermediate in loamy
soil, and least in clay soil.

SOIL AERATION

Oxygen content in aerated soil: 18-21 % , co2

less than 1 %.

Nematode activity increases with increase in

oxygen concentration but decreases with
increase in co2 concentration

Lowest level of oxygen requirement for host and

nematode : 3-5 %

Detrimental level to nematodes is above 5%

Eg: xiphinema americanum more sensitive to

long oxygen exposure

the aeration and pore size of sandy soils increase

nematode viability

Moisture

Either too high or too low moisture levels affects

the nematode

Tolerance levels to moisture may vary

RKN & Burrowing nematode sensitive to

dessication

Stem and bulb nematode resistant

Egg masses, cysts,galls are resistant to high

moisture

Ideal level : Field condition

The effect of soil moisture and soil particle size on the survival
and population increase of Xiphinerna index
(Sufian A. SULTAN and Howard FERRIS)
(Department of Agricultural Sciences, Al1 Najah National
University, West Bank, Israel, and Department of Nematology,
University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA)

The interaction of soil moisture on survival and subsequent

reproductive potentiial of Xiphinema index,and the effect of
sand particle size on population increase, were studied under
greenhouse conditions.

In the absence of a host, fewer than 10 %of the nematodes

survived for 60 days even under favorable (intermediate)
moisture conditions. Survival was very low in both saturated
and dry soils.

In the presence of a host, population increase of the nematode

was highest in sandy loam and in fine sands of 250 m particle
size.

Population increase was low in coarse sand of particle size534

m and larger. Root damage to host plants was directly related
to the increase in nematode population.

Particle Size(m)

Final population

2 360

139

850

179

534

291

373

1020

250

1174

Sandy loam

1590

Soil moisture %

Survival (%)

18.4

24.8

10

28.0

15

27.3

20

24.0

25

21.1

SOIL TEMPERATURE

Temperature plays a major role in nematode

activities like hatching, reproduction, movement,
multiplication, survival, feeding etc.

5-15 c :most nematodes inactive

15-30c: optimum

30-40c :most nematodes inactive

Eg : H.rostochiensis

Invading host : 15-16c, cyst emergence : 2125c, Development : 18-24C.

pH
Severely

affects hatching
Variation in nematode activity is mainly due to soil pH.
Reduction in pH from 6 to 4 decreases the emergence
of juveniles of H. rostochiensis.
At 3 and 10.6 juveniles of RKN juveniles repells
Inhibitory levels are < 5 and > 8
E.g.. P . Penetrans opt :5.5-5.8

LIGHT
Light has no or little effect on
phytonematodes
Mostly spend their lives in darkness
UV light is known to be lethal

OSMOTIC PRESSURE

Juveniles of H.schactii shrink in conc NaCl solution.

OP may act as stimulating agent eg. more RKN in high

saline soils.

Exposure of RKN juveniles to 1M salt solution ineffective.

Osmotic destruction of nematodes eg. M.arenaria.

Most nematodes can tolerate upto 10 atmosphere.

HOST AND SOIL

CHEMICALS

Addition of nitrogenous compounds to soil

decrease the population of nematodes.

Eg P.penetrans .

Applications of sodium nitrate and ammonium

nitrate to soil reduced hatching, penetration and
cyst development in H.glycines on soyabean.

THANK YOU

References

Reproduction, Physiology and Biochemistry

DENIS J. WRIGHT1 AND ROLAND N. PERRY2

CABI 2006. Plant Nematology (eds R.N. Perry and M. Moens)

(Division of Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Imperial College
London)

The effect of soil moisture and soil particle size on the

survival and population increase of Xiphinerna index
Sufian A. SULTANa nd Howard FERRIS
(Department of Agricultural Sciences, Al1 Najah National University,
West Bank, Israel, and Department of Nematology, University of
California, Davis, CA 95616, USA)

The History of Nematodes

Blaxter, M.L., P. De Ley, J.R. Garey, L.X. Liu, P. Scheldeman, A.
Vierstraete, J.R. Vanfleteren, L.Y. Mackey, M. Dorris, L.M.
Frisse, J.T. Vida, K.W. Thomas, K.W. 1998.
(A molecular evolutionary framework for the phylum nematoda)