Causes and

Control of
Fastener
Failures

Better Buildings from

Better Fasteners

Gregg Melvin Senior Applications Engineer

Elco Construction Products

2012 Elco Construction Products

AIA Credits: Elco Construction Products an Infastech company is

Registered Provider with American Institute of Architects Continuing
Education Systems. Credit earned on completion of this program
will be reported to CES Records for AIA members. Certificates of
Completion for non-AIA members available on request.
This program is registered with the AIA/CES for continuing
professional education. As such, it does not include content that
may be deemed or construed to be an approval or endorsement by
the AIA of any material of construction or any method or manner of
handling, using, distributing, or dealing in any material or product.
Questions related to specific materials, methods, and services will
be addressed at the conclusion of this presentation.

Copyright Materials
This presentation is protected by US and
International copyright laws.
Reproduction, distribution, display, and
use of the presentation without written
permission of the speaker is prohibited.

Elco Construction Products 2012

Learning Objectives
1. Identify where A/E must specify fasteners instead
of leaving product selection to contractor or supplier.
2. Learn techniques for reducing fastener rust and
galvanic corrosion damage.
3. Be able to explain causes of hydrogen
embrittlement and HASCC.
4. Be able to specify high-performance, HASCCresistant fasteners.
5. Explain role of fasteners in building sustainability.

PART ONE
SPECIFYING FASTENERS
Risks and Responsibilities

For want of a fastener

For want of a nail,
the shoe was lost.
For want of a shoe,
the horse was lost.
For want of a horse,
the rider was lost.

God is in the details.

Mies van der Rohe - 20th Century Architect

Your reputation hangs on

specifying the right fasteners.
Fastener specification are
critical to project success.

The Petronas Towers in Kuala

Lumpur, the worlds tallest building
when constructed, required careful
engineering to assure that the
millions of fasteners used to install
cladding would not be the
installations weakest link.

Standard types and grades of

fasteners are sufficient in many
construction applications. In these
instances, fastener selection can
usually be based upon industry
standards, building code
requirements, and design loads.
It may even be acceptable in some
cases to leave fastener selection to the
discretion of contractors or building
product fabricators, allowing them to
select fasteners based on cost,
convenience, and trade practices.

Your reputation hangs on

specifying the right fasteners.
Fastener specification are
critical to project success.

At other times, however,

fastener selection can be one of
the most crucial aspects of
building design.
Professional judgment is required
to specify fasteners that:
Perform as intended

The Petronas Towers in Kuala

Lumpur, the worlds tallest building
when constructed, required careful
engineering to assure that the
millions of fasteners used to install
cladding would not be the
installations weakest link.

Are dependable and economical

Last the life of the building

A big job for such a small part

Structural capacity:
Static and dynamic load.
Pull-out and pull-over.
Shear on fastener and attached materials.
Corrosion resistance.
Seal against liquid or gas.
Constructability, practicality, and inspectability.
Design intent and aesthetics.
Removability and other special requirements.
Service life exceeds that of attached materials.
Specifying fasteners is part of designing safe, durable, and
practical connections between components.

HASCC
Another Threat to Fasteners
HASCC = Hydrogen-Assisted Stress
Corrosion Cracking.
HASCC has only been identified as a
fastener failure mechanism within the
past few decades.
Best Industry Practices now require
consideration of HASCC when specifying
fasteners.

PART TWO
VISIBLE CORROSION
Rust and Galvanic Action
Before considering HASCC, lets review
some basics of ordinary fastener corrosion:
Oxidation (Rusting)
Galvanic Corrosion

Must it Rust?
Most architectural fasteners are made from grades or alloys of steel that will
react with oxygen to create ferrous oxide, commonly know as rust. Rust is a
type of corrosion that weakens and deteriorates steel. Rusting is
accelerated when steel is also exposed to moisture, especially if the
moisture contains chlorides (salts), a condition that is common in marine,
industrial, and urban atmospheres.
When designing steel-to-steel connections,
both the fasteners and the items being
joined must be protected against rusting.
Steel building panels, for example, can be
protected by using zinc galvanizing and a
high-performance coating.
As a general guideline, fasteners should
have greater corrosion resistance than
items being joined so that fasteners do not
become weakest link in connection.

Once rust starts, it can

spread rapidly to adjacent
exposed steel surfaces.

Corrosion-Resistant Plating
How they work:
1. Barrier against air and moisture.
2. Sacrificial, galvanic protection.
Available Types:

Plating is not
acceptable protection
for high performance
fasteners.

Hot-dipped galvanizing: Thick zinc clogs

threads.
Electroplated Zinc: Insufficient protection for
exterior or high performance fasteners.
Cadmium and Hexavalent Chromates:
Greater protection, but environmental
concerns.
Plating is contraindicated for casehardened fasteners.

Corrosion-Resistant Coatings
Better protection for highperformance fasteners.
Base Coat: Baked-on, zinc-rich,
cross-linked polymer.
Top-Coat: Baked-on, aluminumrich, cross-linked polymer.
Pigments optional.
Colors provide product
identification and
aesthetics.

Eco-friendly: Minimize or
eliminate heavy metals.
Lubricate threads: Eases
installations

Corrosion-Resistant Stainless Steel

300-series stainless steel provides greater corrosion resistance.
Use for critical structural connections, exposed exteriors, and in locations with corrosive
environments.
Can require coating for protection against galvanic corrosion of materials they are attaching.

Galvanic Corrosion
Occurs when dissimilar metals are in presence of an
electrolyte (an electrically conductive medium) and form a
galvanic cell.
Like an electric battery, except two pieces of metal form a
circuit.
H+

H+

(electrolyte)

H+

Galvanic Series
Metals conduct electricity because they have a tendency to give
up electrons easily. Some metals give up electrons more easily
than others. They can be listed in order of their potential to yield
electrons, in a table known as a Galvanic Series.
Cathode (Least Active)
More noble
(protected and
less corroded)

Less noble
(sacrificial
and more
corroded)

Gold
Silver
Stainless Steel
Bronze
Copper
Brass
Nickel
Lead
Steel & Iron
Aluminum
Zinc
Magnesium

Anode (Most Active)

Aluminum is more active

(anodic) than steel or
stainless steel. Where
aluminum and steel form a
galvanic cell, aluminum
will corrode, sacrificing
electrons that will deposit
onto and protect the steel.

Galvanic Corrosion
This aluminum plate received two screws made from 300-series stainless steel,
a grade that is highly resistant to oxidation and rusting. It was then exposed to
1000 hours of salt-water spray that acted as an electrolyte to form a galvanic
cell between the aluminum plate and stainless steel fasteners. The screws were
them removed to allow examination of the plate.
Stainless Steel
Screw: The
aluminum sacrificed
electrons to the
steel. The surface
of the aluminum is
visibly deteriorated.

Stainless Steel Screw

With Anti-Corrosion
Coating: The coating
prevent formation of a
galvanic cell and
prevented corrosion of
the aluminum plate.

Using ordinary steel fasteners in architectural aluminum elements (such as

windows, curtain walls, or wall cladding) can also create galvanic corrosion of the
aluminum, weakening the connection until it fails at well below design loads.
Avoid this problem by specifying fasteners with high-quality anti-corrosive
coatings.

Galvanic Corrosion
Dissimilar metal combinations are
common in construction. For example:
Aluminum framed glazing units and
cladding get attached to structural steel
framing using steel, self-drilling, selftapping screws.
Aluminum parts are often attached to
concrete or masonry with self-tapping
screws made of steel.
Even steel-to-steel connections can
involve dissimilar metals, if either of the
steel parts, or the fasteners joining
them, has been coated with zinc.

Thin veneers can be

attached with self-drilling
fasteners in the support
structure.

Galvanic Corrosion
It is difficult to prevent electrolytes from contact with fasteners.
Moisture can enter construction due to:
Rain or dew during Construction
Condensation inside a wall or roof
Leaks in building envelope
Water from building maintenance or operations
Plumbing failures
Flooding and spills
Perspiration from workers who installed the part
Air pollutants can make atmospheric moisture more conductive

If dissimilar metals are in contact, assume that an

electrolyte will also be in contact with the fasteners.
Specifying fasteners with adequate corrosion resistance protects
against catastrophic failure, loss of use, injury, death, and liability.

PART THREE
HASCC
The Invisible Corrosion
A secondary effect of the galvanic reaction can
also lead to fastener failures. Hydrogen, a byproduct of galvanic corrosion, can weaken
standard, hardened fasteners and cause them to
fail. It produces a type of corrosion that is not
readily apparentuntil it is too late.

Construction Scene Investigation

20 years after installation, self-drilling screws began snapping for
no apparent reason.
Screws complied with code requirements and industry standards.
They had been exposed to weather due to roof damage, but were
not visibly corroded.

Scanning electron micrographs

revealed fractured fastener
surfaces and separated grain
boundaries in steel.
Screws had also lost ductility.

The Verdict: HASCC

Hydrogen & Embrittlement

HASCC starts with hydrogen.
Hydrogen embrittlement is associated
with galvanic action. However, steel
fasteners are not necessarily weakened
by galvanic corrosion itself. Rather,
hydrogen generated by galvanic
action attacks the steel.
Even if steel is protected from galvanic
corrosion, hydrogen can attack it rapidly.
Screws attacked by
hydrogen lose ductility
and become embrittled
They typically show no
visible corrosion.

Specialized fasteners have been

developed to avoid this risk.

Source of Hydrogen
1. Galvanic action creates electrical current.
2. Water in electrolyte separates into oxygen
and hydrogen.
3. Oxygen bonds with anode and oxidizes
metal. Since oxides have little structural
strength, anode weakens and corrodes.
4. Hydrogen is attracted to cathode and
penetrates into metal.
Process is similar to laboratory procedure for separating
water into hydrogen and oxygen by passing electrical current
through it, a process called electrolysis.

Hydrogen Diffuses into Steel

Hydrogen, the smallest atom,
penetrates voids in steels crystal
structure.
Hydrogen atoms are unstable and
bond with other hydrogen atoms.
The larger H2 molecules put
pressure on the surrounding
steel structure.
Internal tension in steel enlarges
grain boundaries and reduces
ductility.
Steel can no longer bear design
load, and the fastener can fail.

Scanning electron
microscope image of steel
shows enlarged grain
boundaries indicative of
hydrogen embrittlement.

The Role of Case Hardening

Case
Rockwell
Hardness
HRC 52 min.

Core
Rockwell
Hardness
HRC 32-40
HASCC affects steel of Rockwell
hardness HRC 35. The harder the
steel, the more susceptible is it to
HASCC.

Hydrogen has little effect on

mild (soft) steel.
Many building fasteners are
case hardened,
In case hardening, lowcarbon steel is heated in a
high-carbon environment to
infuse extra carbon into
metals surface.
This hardens case, but
makes it brittle.
Case hardened self-drilling
and self-tapping screws
are hard enough to cut into
structural steel or concrete.

Hydrogen Embrittlement & Stress

In case-hardened fasteners, the hard outer layer is most
vulnerable to HASCC.
Cross-section of failed
case-hardened fastener:
A. HASCC Failure Mode
B. Strength loss due to
Ductile and Embrittlement
Mode
C. Ductile failure due to
reduced cross-section
of fastener.

Stress Concentration
Stress increases steels susceptibility to embrittlement.
Stress concentration occurs at screw heads for 3 reasons:

1. MANUFACTURE
Deformations
required to form
steel rod into screw
heads induces
stress into metal.

Stress Concentration
2. CLAMPING FORCES
When screws are tightened, their
heads bear on the surface of the
object being attached.
This places the area of the shank
immediately under the head into
tension, inducing stress.

Stress Concentration
3. OUT OF ALIGNMENT
Screws are rarely perfectly
perpendicular to surfaces
they are attaching.
When tightened, uneven
pressure is put on head by
oblique angle at which it is
installed.
This puts additional stress on
one side of fastener at
juncture of head and shank.

A test for resistance to hydrogen

embrittlement closely mimics this real-world
situation. The fastener is screwed through
two plates of dissimilar metals. A shim is
placed under one edge of the top plate,
creating an angle between the two plates and
placing the screw at an oblique angle with
respect to one of them.

Stress Cracking
Galvanically generated
hydrogen at stress points leads
to microscopic cracking.
Micro-cracks further
concentrates stress points.
Once propagated, cracks can
spread quickly through
hardened steel.
Metallurgists call this cracking
Hydrogen Assisted Stress
Corrosion Cracking (HASCC).

Plating and Hydrogen Embrittlement

Case hardened fasteners must still be protected against rust
and galvanic corrosion.
Standard plating of case hardened fasteners generates
hydrogen that could contribute to Hydrogen Embrittlement.
This is unlikely, because platers bake hydrogen out of
fasteners @ 400+ for several hours after treatment.
But you cannot bake-out Hydrogen from continuous Galvanic
reactions on the job.
In low stress, completely dry areas, zinc or other plated, case
hardened fasteners, may work well, or, if exposed to moisture
it can pose a risk for delayed failures.
Case hardened fasteners can be protected with highperformance anti-corrosion coating. But it does not stop
hydrogen diffusion into hardened steel.
However, new innovations described in next section will.

HASCC Recap
Galvanic action between dissimilar metals generates hydrogen.
Hydrogen penetrates hardened steel and creates internal
stresses that weaken fasteners.
This process occurs primarily in high hardness/case hardened
parts.
Stress concentrations initiate micro-cracking that can propagate
across fastener.
HASCC can occur days, months or years after fastener
installation if connection is exposed to moisture.
Failure is often sudden and without warning. No rust is seen .

PART FOUR
HASCC SOLUTIONS
For Self-Drilling Screws

Benefits of Self Drilling Screws

Self-drilling screws require just seconds of installation
time and labor VS that required for nuts-and-bolts,
rivets, and other fasteners requiring pre-drilled holes.
Fasteners install in single, fast operation using a
power driver.
They are much faster than two-handed bolt-and-nut
installations, and more practical where
the back side
Dril-Flex.exe
is not accessible for installing a nut.
With hundreds of thousands of fasteners used in
large buildings, this represents an enormous savings in
labor.
Use to install windows, cladding, curtain wall, framing,
anchors, equipment, fixtures, and other building
components.

Design of Self Drilling Screws

Tip drills pilot hole.
Lead threads tap
threads into
substrate, so
substrate acts as nut.
Available in
configurations to suit
a wide range of
construction
applications.

Select head style for

easy installation,
acceptable profile,
and pull-over
resistance
Select
thread style
to hold in
substrate

Lead threads cut

threads into (tap)
substrate for pull-out
resistance
Tip drills hole and
removes shavings

The Remedy for HASCC

Self-drilling fasteners have to be case hardened in
order to drill and tap substrates but case
hardening makes them vulnerable to failure.
Fortunately, there is a solution to fastener HASCC
hazards.

HASCC-Resistant Fasteners
Vir
tu a
to lly Im
HA
m
SC un
e
C

A Metallurgical Marvel
There are two ways to achieve this performance:
1. Selectively Hardened Fasteners
2. Bi-Metal Fasteners

Hardened for
drilling and
tapping

Ductile for structural

performance and
HASCC-resistance.

1. Selectively Hardened Fasteners

DUCTILE WHERE
NEEDED
Grade 5 heat treat
in load-bearing
area of fastener

HARDENED WHERE
NEEDED
Selectively hardened
point and tapping
threads HRC 52

Made from special, highcarbon steel, they do not

have to be placed in a highcarbon environment during
heat treatment.
Tip of screw is passed
through electrical induction
coil that heats and hardens
drill-point and lead-threads
without affecting rest of
shank.

2. Bi-Metal Fasteners
Use where stainless steel is required
for increased resistance to
corrosive environments.
A high-carbon steel tip is fused onto
300 Series
stainless shank.

Stainless
Steel Head
High carbon tip is then selectively
hardened using induction-coil heating. and
Shank
High-Carbon
Steel Tip,
Selectively
Hardened

Recommended
for exposed
fasteners.

Corrosion-Resistant Coatings
Use corrosion-resistant coatings on both selectively
hardened and bi-metal fasteners.
Coating provides galvanic protection and lubricates
threads.
Coating can be color matched as required.

Bi-Metal Fastener: Before coating, above. After coating, below.

PROOF
Self-drilling fasteners joining steel and aluminum plates, exposed
to salt-spray test.
Conventional fasteners fail due to stress concentration at screw
heads that accelerates embrittlement and HASCC.
Neither selectively-hardened nor bi-metal fasteners fail.

HASCCresistant
fasteners
are not
affected
Standard
case-hardened
fasteners failed

PROOF

PROOF
HASCC-resistant screws
were used to secure
crown at top of building
and building envelope.
Exposed to marine and
urban atmosphere, high
winds, and earthquakes.
Over two decades of
service.
Zero failures.
US Bank Building/
Los Angeles, CA
Pei Cobb Freed Partners

Best Industry Practices

Where dissimilar metals will be in
contact, specify: selectivelyhardened self-drilling fasteners
to resist HASCC.

Where stainless steel is required

for protection against visible
corrosion or extreme
environments, specify: bi-metal
self-drilling fasteners with a
selectively-hardened tip to
resist HASCC.

HASCC Recap
Galvanic action in dissimilar metals generates hydrogen.
Hydrogen penetrates case hardened steel and creates
internal stresses that weaken fasteners.
Stress concentrations initiate micro-cracking that
propagate across fastener and lead to failure.
HASCC can occur days, months or years after fastener
installation if connection is exposed to moisture.
Failure is often sudden and without warning.
Failures can be avoided by using selectively-hardened or
bi-metal self-drilling screws with corrosion-resistant
coating.

PART FIVE
SPECIAL FASTENERS

Extreme Loads
Structure is subjected to brief loads far higher than normal
operating loads.
Risks include:
Hurricane, tornado, and windblown missile impact
Earthquake, tsunami, landslide, avalanche
Industrial accidents and vehicular collisions
Load redistribution due to failure of building elements
Explosion, including boiler, natural gas leaks, attack
Located near possible targets
If there is reason to suspect a risk, design for it.

Determination
of Risk

Estimate
of Risk Loads

Risk-Resistant
Design

Extreme Loading of Fasteners

If a structure is designed to
withstand extreme load, load is
transferred to fasteners that
connect it to other building
elements.

QuickTime and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Ductile fasteners can deform to

absorb some load while
maintaining connection.
If fasteners are brittle, extreme
loading may cause them to fail.
Using ductile, HASCC-resistant
fasteners helps assure full design
strength of fasteners can be used
to resist extreme loads.

Extreme loads can

affect all building
components, not just
structural members.

Where to Specify
Blast-resistant windows
Curtain wall framing
Building equipment
Critical life safety and
communications
equipment
To assure continuous
service of essential
facilities

Concrete and Masonry Screws

Choice of
head styles

Grade 5
hardness for
strength and
ductility

Higher
hardness for
tapping
threads

Concrete

Specifying concrete
and masonry
anchors also
requires
consideration of
dissimilar metals
and corrosion
resistance.
A variety of special
designs are
available to satisfy
most construction
requirements.

Choice of
head
styles

Hi-lo
thread
taps into
masonry

Masonry

Pressure-Relief Fasteners
In buildings with potential for interior
explosions, special panels can be
designed to blow off and relieve
pressure, a built in safety valve.
Examples include places where highly
volatile liquids are in use, or storage
for extremely fine dry, materials subject
to dust-explosion.

Pressure-Relief Fasteners
Panels have an holes larger
than fastener heads.
A special aluminum washer
retains the panel in position.
Under explosive pressure,
washers fail and allow
panels to blow off, venting
the pressure.
Panel is tethered to keep it
from becoming a dangerous
missile.

panel

panel
separates
from framing
member
centering
device
framing

aluminum
pressurerelieving
washer

Normal

washer
collapses

Explosion

Threaded Rod Anchors

1/4-20 & 3/8-16

Threaded rods are used to support fire-sprinklers and other essential building
services. These fasteners simplify installation while protecting against potential
failures of other fastening methods that are not positively engaged in the
structural materials.

Sealing Washers

Special head design plus high performance washer

material help prevent leaks through building envelope.

SUMMARY
Manage Your Risk
Fasteners are critical components
of buildings.
A/Es must be aware of their
professional responsibility to
specify fasteners that fulfill design
intent and provide safe and
durable connections.

Economy
The lowest cost fastener may not be the
most economical when labor and service
life are considered.
Specialty fasteners can often save money
by providing lower installed cost.
Fasteners are typically less than .0025%
per dollar of project cost, but specifying
inadequate fasteners can cause up to 100%
of construction defect costs.

Sustainability
Most metal fasteners have recycledmaterial content and are recyclable.
New corrosion-resistant finishes
eliminate toxic heavy metals plating.
Durability over life of structure is the
most important measure of sustainability.

Fasteners are critical building components

A/Es have professional responsibility to
specify fasteners that fulfill design intent and
provide safe and durable connections.
It is not safe to assume that contractors will
be aware of these issues and will select
anything other than standard fasteners.
Specify accordingly.

For More Information

Elco Construction Products
Dril-Flex and Bi-Flex
HASCC-Resistant Fasteners
www.elcoconstruction.com
Gregg Melvin
(815) 979-3249
gmelvin@infastech.com

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