Functional Morphology/ Adaptations of

Marine Mammals to Aquatic Life

 Physical Characteristics of
Aquatic Environment
Density of seawater is almost 3 orders of
magnitude greater, and the viscosity approx.
60x greater than air at similar temperature
The thermal conductivity coefficient of water
is 25x that of air at an equivalent
temperature
The aquatic medium severely attenuates
light energy at rates much greater than
through air
Suggests that the physical properties of water deeply influence how marine
mammals perceive and respond to their aquatic environment.

CETACEANS

External Morphology

Highly streamlined body

Torpedo-shaped body
Hydrodynamic design
Variable rostrum - beak and
melon size
Caudal peduncle laterally
compressed region between tail
fluke & dorsal fin
Sharks & Ichthyosaurs

Hydrodynamic design
Least resistance to water
Reduced appendages vestigial
hind limbs
No external pinna & genitalia and
no exposed mammae
Lack of hair & smooth skin
Flukes, flippers & dorsal fin
Short necks & tapered body

Flukes

Fluke horizontal flattened &

blade-shaped tail
No bony support
Fish with vertical plane
Bilateral fins at end of narrow
tail stock
Notched at center or not
Terminal caudal bone at
peduncle

Flippers

Modified flattened fore limbs

into Flippers
Paddle or oar-shaped
Rounded or Pointed
Long & wing-like in Humpback
whales
Limited movement of pectoral
fins
Vestigial bones of hand &
fingers for support

Dorsal fin

Dorsal fin present or absent

Set at center of body or set
far back on body
Hydrodynamic function fin
cuts through water
No bony support & variable in
shape
Distinct or indistinct hump

Dorsal fin

Long ridge or series of

dorsal ridges
Dorsal fin high or short
Rounded shape
Triangular & pointed
Falcated (sickle-shaped)
Sexual dimorphism in Killer
whales

Rostrum, Beak or Snout

Upper jaw extending well past lower jaw
Not extending much or less than lower
jaw
Beak prominent or indistinct
Tube-like or pointed, short or long &
narrow
Maxillary crest present or absent

Rostrum, Beak or Snout

Rostrum Down-curved (decurved) or Upcurved (recurved)
Forehead steep or rising at shallow angle
Gape corner of mouth, widest opening
Baleen whales have an enormous mouth over a
quarter of body length

Movements
Rorquals swim 25-30 km/ hr at slow pace
Dolphins can sprint at high speed or swim
effortlessly at 10-20 km/ hr
Hydrodynamic shape reduces turbulence
Upward Power stroke and Downward Recovery
stroke

Blowhole
Cetacean external nares
located on top of head
Diverted nasal passages &
diverticulae upward from the
pharynx
Separate pharynx from nasal
passages
Transverse or Longitudinal
Crescentric or Elliptical or Sshaped

Blowhole
Odontocetes have single
opening (single blowhole)
Mysticetes have a pair of
openings (double blowhole)
Movable muscular skin flaps
close slit like nares when
diving
Whale blow - expel used air
(exhale) and rapid inhalation

Integument
Lacks hair for least resistance
to water
River dolphins with short stiff
bristles on snout
Baleen whales carry sensory
bristles on their faces for prey
detection
Smooth rubbery skin that
dimples to reduce friction

Integument
Subdermal blubber for
insulation, energy storage &
smoothens contours
Blubber is specialized thick
layers of fat just under skin
Blubber thinnest on flukes,
flippers and dorsal fin

Integument
Callosities roughed skin for
attachment of whale lice and
mooring barnacles
Knobs & Stove-bolts
Whales have smaller eyes
protected by folds of skin
Muscular flaps on nostrils

Specialized features
Creases or furrows short,
indistinct or absent
Throat grooves with expanding
ventral pleats
Knobs & stove bolts
1-3 ridges on snout
Callosities on head
Protruding tusk single, paired
or two pairs

Coloration and Patterns

Variable color patterns for
recognition or camouflage
Monochromatic or boldly
patterned black & white
Countershading cryptic
coloration, dark upper surface &
light below
Age-related coloration light or
dark calves

Coloration and Patterns

Spotted, Striped or Bridled
White-beak or White-sided
Cape dark region on back with
distinct margin
Saddle light patch behind
dorsal fin
Spinal blaze light streak of
color invading cape below
dorsal fin

Endoskeleton
Streamlined &hydrodynamic
Reduced appendages for least
resistance to water
Spare or reduced skeleton
Strong but lightweight
With spongy bones & distorted
skulls
Bouyancy allowed whales to grow
enormous sizes

Skull and Lower jaw

Distorted cranium with or
without vertex & crest
Occipital condyles paired &
rounded
Rostrum long maxilla &
premaxilla (eminence +/-)
Wide palate, palatine exposed
or not
Hamular separate or not

Skull and Lower jaw

Nasals at top of head & frontals
lateral to nasals
Thin & narrow angled zygomatic
arch
Reduced tympanic bulla
Mandibular symphysis present in
Odontocetes, absent in Mysticetes
Asymmetrical skull due to
echolocation & telecsoping

Vertebral column & Limbs

Constricted, reduced or fused cervical vertebrae,
and lacks sacral vertebrae
Spine mainly series of thoracic (with ribs), lumbar
& caudal vertebrae
Sternum reduced & separate from double-headed
ribs (variable in number)

Vertebral column & Limbs

Vestigial pelvis few free & suspended bones as
remnants of pelvis
Lacks hind limbs
Fore limbs shortened retain scapula, humerus,
radius & ulna, carpals & metacarpals & 5 digits

Sireneans, Pinnipeds, Marine

Otters and Polar Bears

External Morphology
Slightly streamlined body
shape Dugong more
hydrodynamic and less
resistance to water
Blubber as insulation thick
layers of fat
Fur greatly reduced and
retain vibrissae for
navigation & foraging
Reduced skeleton but spongy
bones not light weight to
limit bouyancy

Fluke & Flippers

Fluke horizontal plane in

Sirenians
Fish vertical plane
Sea cow bilateral fins &
notched or not notched at
center
Manatee round oar-like tail
Dorsal fin absent

External Morphology
Variable streamlined body
shape hydrodynamic, least
resistance to water
Blubber as insulation thick
layers of fat
Fur as insulation thick coat
of waterproof underfur
Retain vibrissae for
navigation & foraging
Reduced skeleton to limit
weight & myoglobin in
muscles to augment oxygen
demand

Fluke & Flippers

Fluke horizontal plane in

marine mammals
Dorsal fin absent
Pinnipeds have hind flippers &
feather-like fore flippers

External Morphology
Less streamlined body shape
slightly hydrodynamic, least
resistance to water
Less blubber as insulation thick
layers of fat
Fur as insulation thick coat of
waterproof underfur
Retain vibrissae for navigation &
foraging

Fluke & Flippers

Fluke and Dorsal fin absent

Otters undulating webbed
hind feet & flat tail
Polar bear dog-paddle

Integument
Multifunctional organ system that sculpts
the animals boundary with its aquatic
environment
Forms a protective and insulative layer ,
adds buoyancy and forms propulsive
structures
3 functions in marine mammals;
thermoregulation, drag reduction and
buoyancy control
terrestrial mammals use epidermal
structures to heat their bodies
HAIR/FUR

Integument
Multifunctional organ system that sculpts
the animals boundary with its aquatic
environment
Forms a protective and insulative layer ,
adds buoyancy and forms propulsive
structures
3 functions in marine mammals;
thermoregulation, drag reduction and
buoyancy control
terrestrial mammals use epidermal
structures to heat their bodies
HAIR/FUR

Thermoregulation
HAIR/FUR
Marine mammals that spend time both on
land and water have fur
In water
Wet fur in terrestrial mammals and most marine
mammals loses its insulative properties
Only the densest fur can maintain a layer of
trapped air, remain waterproof and insulative
upon submersion
Only sea otters and fur seals maintain the
skin surface dry and insulated when wetted

 In polar bears, sea otters and most pinnipeds, the

canals support a primary hair, and a number of
smaller , softer underhairs (1-10 in typical
mammals; 50-100 in sea otters and fur seals)
Hair of sea otters has squalene which makes them
waterproofed
Fur seals have paired sebaceous glands
Length of guard hairs in marine mammals is not
functionally relevant to insulation

 BLUBBER
Walrus, adult phocid seals and bare-skinned
sirenianas and cetaceans
Can make up a substantial percentage of the total
body weight of marine mammals
Thickened, adipose-rich hypodermis
Continuous sheet of adipose tissue reinforced by a
network of collage and elastic fibers
Not as nearly as effective an insulating material as
dry fur but high density furs lose their insulative
value when animals dive to the deep
Insulative properties of blubber depends on
thickness and lipid content (those living in the
tropics have thinner blubbbers than those in
temperate countries)

Drag Reduction
2 types of drag

Viscous drag or frictional drag

results from the viscosity of water
Results from fluid being sheared across the
surface of the body
Pressure drag

Marine Mammals

Marine mammals are

specialized aquatic
mammals well adapted to
life in the sea
Refers to members of the
order Cetacea, Sirenia &
suborder Pinnipedia
Also includes some
specialized carnivores like
the polar bear, sea otter &
marine otter
Excludes aquatic mammals
adapted to freshwater
except river dolphin &
manatee

Adaptations to Aquatic Life

Streamlined body shape
hydrodynamic, least
resistance to water
Blubber as insulation thick
layers of fat
Fur as insulation thick coat
of waterproof underfur
Retain vibrissae for
navigation & foraging
Reduced skeleton to limit
weight & myoglobin in
muscles to augment oxygen
demand

Blowhole
Cetacean external nares
located on the top of the
head
Diverted nasal passages
& diverticulae upward
from the pharynx
Odontocetes have a
single opening
Mysticetes have a pair of
openings

Fluke & Flippers

Fluke horizontal plane in

marine mammals
Bilateral fins & notched or
not notched at center
Fish vertical plane
Manatee round oar-like tail
Dorsal fin - streamlining
Pinniped hind flippers &
feather-like fore flippers
Otters undulating webbed
hind feet & flat tail
Polar bear dog-paddle

Echolocation in aquatic
mammals

A variety of mammals emit

sounds above 20 kHz (20,000
cycles/sec) in frequency
Emitted above range of
normal human hearing as in
some pinnipeds & cetaceans
Acoustically orient to the
echoes of high frequency
sound emitted - bouncing
wave
Echolocation used to
determine distance &
location of objects, to
navigate & find food

Echolocation in aquatic
mammals
Many toothed whales inhabit
the littoral zone, forage in
productive but murky water
Some inhabit muddy rivers &
estuaries, or hunt in extreme
depths with limited light
Odontocetes evolved to use
echolocation to forage for
food due to limited vision
Sonar used to locate and
even stun prey
Difficulties faced by aquatic
mammals due to inherent
acoustical properties of water

Echolocation in aquatic
mammals
Problem 1: Sound travels 5X
faster in water than in air,
thus wavelength of any
sound frequency is 5x longer
Objects reflect only those
wavelengths equal to or
shorter than their diameters
Cetaceans use high
frequency sounds to produce
short enough wavelengths
Bottle-nosed Dolphins emit
high frequency clicks &
squeaks (20 to 220 kHz)

Echolocation in aquatic
mammals
Problem 2: Difficult to match
the acoustic impedance of the
ear to that of the water
Sound energy is not
transmitted well across an airwater interface at middle ear
99.9 % of energy at interface is
reflected
Cetaceans adapted by
abandoning the middle ear as
the sound-receiving organ
A new water air interface is
created at the tympanic
membrane, reflect back to
water

Echolocation in aquatic
mammals

Problem 3: Efficiency of
transmission of sound energy
from water into body tissues
High proportion of energy is
absorbed & propagates
echoes in body tissue as noise
With middle ear no longer
sound-receiving organ, inner
ear is isolated from the sound
propagated thru body tissue
(fat & muscle)
Conducting sound via special
fat body at lower jaw-auditory
bulla (limits transmit)

Echolocation in aquatic
mammals

Problem 4: Sound production

is limited by supply of air
when submerged in water
Can waste air supply by
bubbling air out of mouth in
the process of generating
sound
Cetaceans shifted site of
sound production from larynx
to complex system of nasal
passages & diverticulae that
extend upward from the
pharynx to the blowhole

Echolocation in aquatic
mammals

Air forced back & forth the

passages produce sound
energy reflected forward from
the broad anterior surface of
skull
Sound focused by an acoustic
lens formed by oil-filled melon
(unique to odontocetes)
Melon can change shape to
beam the sound energy in
different locations
High frequency emitted in a
narrow beam directly forward,
low freq. dispersed wider

Cetacean melon

Oil-filled fat body characteristic

feature of Odontocetes
Responsible for external shape
of the head, since skull
occupies small part only
Changes shape conspicuously,
serves as a flexible lens to
beam sound emitted
Sperm whale melon is source
of sperm oil valued for clear
smokeless flame in lamps
As much as 30 barrels from a
single whale

River Dolphins
River dolphins inhabit large murky rivers &
estuaries, some purely freshwater species
Long snout with many teeth (fish trap), a highly
flexible neck and short narrow body
Have reduced eyes & use echolocation
Susu Indus & Ganges river, India
Botu Amazon & Orinico river, S. America
Baiji Yangtze river/ Tunging lake, China

Whale song
Baleen whales are not known to use echolocation,
although known to sing
Produce unique vocalizations related to complex
social behavior, mostly audible
Calculations of sound energy of songs suggest it
travels hundred of miles at sea
Sound travels 5X faster in water, carried for long
distances often at low frequency
Beluga whale or sea canary also sings

Deep Dives & Bends

High water pressure with increasing depth
Expel air from lungs and rely on Oxygen rich blood
in muscles myoglobin
Respiratory tract reinforced with cartilage and
muscle to avoid collapse
Danger of bends nitrogen narcosis

Specialized trophic adaptations

Aquatic habits have produced some highly
specialized forms of dentition or lack of it
Fish & Squid specialist dolphin
Plankton specialist humpback whale
Mollusk specialist walrus
Crab specialist crab-eater seal
Aquatic invertebrate specialist platypus
Sea grass specialist - dugong

Cetacean Dentition
Toothed whales (Odontocetes) are specialized
mammalian homodonts
Fish trap dentition of the dolphin Lipotes are a
long series of identical sharp cones
Dentition of the beaked whale Mesoplodon is a
single lower pair of large gingko leaf shaped teeth
to capture deep-sea squids
Giant squids are grasped by large conical lower
teeth row of sperm whales Kogia

Pinniped Dentition
Mollusk digging and pulverizing dentition of the
walrus Odobenus (pair of tusks)
Uniquely wavy curved dentition of a crab-eater
seal is adapted for crustaceans
Sharp conical teeth of a leopard seal is for
catching and skinning penguins

Baleen
Toothless plankton-straining baleen plates
(whalebone) of a right whale Eubalaena
Baleen are sheets of fibrous, stiff, horn-like
epidermal derivative (keratinized fringes), which
extend downward from upper jaw
Large fleshy tongue presses engulfed food &
water to palate to strain food (filter feed)
Longitudinal throat folds expand greatly to
accommodate a mouth full of krill or fish

Feeding strategies
Baleen whales employ coordinated group feeding
on large schools of prey (fish, krill)
Knobs or stove bolts visible on the rostra of
Humpback Whales - enlarged vibrissae containing
sensory follicles
Hair helps feeding whales to indicate the density
of food organisms engulfed

Nontrophic functions of teeth

Various modified marine mammal teeth
Massive tusk-like canines of the walrus are used
for protection & courtship 100 cm long in males,
used as rival males fight
Used as levers to lift massive body & haul out
onto shore or drifting sea ice
Male Narwhals are the unicorn of the sea, bearing
a single extremely long tusk

Reproductive adaptations
Cetaceans urogenital sinus & genitalia hidden in
urogential slit & shorter distance to anus in males
(with dong)
Females turn upside down to expose slit to waters
surface to resist mating
Mammae hidden in a mammary slit, give birth and
nurse young in the water
Pinnipeds & carnivores exposed mammae give
birth and nurse young on land or ice
Platypus lays egg in a burrow near river

Reproductive strategies

High fat levels in milk of marine mammals

Synchronized Parturition time & Mating for most
marine mammals (female receptivity)
Polygyny in Pinnipeds harem, dimorphic
Walrus fight for females, largest baculum
Frustrated male elephant seals
Promiscuity in Cetaceans dolphin pods
Bachelor pod & solitary female fin whale