AtmosphericCirculation

Movingthingsaroundonpresentday
Earth

Short-term cycles

Long term (organic)

Long term - rock
(inorganic/tectonic)

Globalcycles
Biogeochemicalcyclesarethemajorwaythatelementsare
movedonEarthssurface
Drivenbysolarinput(primaryproduction)
Elementscyclebetweenreservoirsthatoperateondifferent
timescales
Cycleshavepositiveandnegativefeedbacksandsubjectto
perturbations
Interactionwithphysicalprocessesthroughtectonic/rockcycles
Oceansandatmosphereareimportantconduitstransporting
matterandenergy

Oceans&Atmosphere
Shortertimescalesofexchange
Exchangetimeinatmospherehoursto
decades
Mediatesrapidcyclingbetweenoceansand
continents

Exchangetimeinoceans
Surfaceanddeepwateryears
Deepcirculation100sto1000sofyears

Atmosphere&Ocean
Gasesandwaterfreelyexchangeattheocean
atmosphereinterface
Movementofair(andwater)bywindhelp
minimizeworldwidetemperatureextremes.
Weatherisinfluencedbythemovementofwater
inair(stateoftheatmosphereataspecifictime
andplace)
Climateisthelongtermaverageoftheweatherin
anarea

Ingeneral
Atmosphereexchangesmaterialwithbiota
andoceansrapidly
Cyclesthatincludeanatmospheric
componenttendtohavemorerapidrecycling
(NandC)
Cycleswithoutanatmosphericcomponent
canbeslower(immobile)becausetiedto
geologicalcycles(P)

Atmosphere
Majorconduitfortransportbetweenoceansand
land
Majorroleincontrollingclimate(heattransport)

Compositionevolvedasaresultofevolutionoflife
Changingduetohumanactivities
Wellmixedsoharbingerofglobalchange

Structurelayered
Heldonearthssurfacebygravity

Mt. Everest
(8,850 m)

Atmospherestructure
0oC
Mesosphere
Pressure decreases with altitude 1 atmosphere
of pressure at Earths surface at sea level.

30 mi

Stratopause

Te
mp
era
tur
e

Ozone

40 km
Dry

20 m
Stratosphere

20 km
-55oC
Weather zone

Water
Vapor
80% of atmospheric mass is in the troposphere

Tropopause
Troposphere

20oC

10 m

StructureoftheAtmosphere
Troposphereisdensestandiswhereourweather
occurs
Substancesinthestratospherepersistforlongperiods
becausetherearefewremovalprocesses
Introposphere,temperaturedecreaseswithaltitude
Instratosphere,temperatureincreaseswithaltitude
duetointeractionswithparticlesandradiationfrom
thesun
Theozonelayeriswithinthestratosphere
OzoneabsorbsUVattopofstratosphere

Troposphere
Wellmixed
Limitedexchangewithoverlyingstratosphere
Heatedbylongwaveradiation(heat)re
radiatedfromEarthssurface
Temperaturedecreaseswithaltitudeintroposphere

Heatingfrombelowresultsinconvection,
remember?
Risingwarmaircreatesthermalinstability

Compositionofthe
atmosphere
78%nitrogenand21%oxygen
Otherelementsmakeup<1%
Airisnevercompletelydryandwatercan
beupto4%ofitsvolume.
Residencetimeofwatervaporinthe
atmosphereis~10days.

also H2S, H2, (CH3)S

Atmosphere
N2fairlyinert;longresidencetime(20my)
O2accumulatedovertime;complexcontrols;shorter
residencetime(~10,000years)
CO2traceconstituent;complexcontrols;shortresidence
time(~3years)
Affectedbyprocesseswithcyclesatvarioustimescales(fromrock
toseasonal)
Longtermvariations
Greenhouse

Atmosphere
Traceconstituentsreducedgases
Microbiallyproducedatpresentandremovedinrain/oxidation
Greenhousegases

Ozonestratosphere
Problematicintroposphere

Watervapor
Variestremendously
Importantindistributingheat
Greenhousegas

Propertiesoftheatmosphere
Airhasmass(anddensity)
Molecularmovementassociatedwithheatcauses
thesamemassofwarmairtooccupymorespace
thancoolair.So,warmairislessdense.
Humidairislessdensethandryairatthesame
temperaturebecausemoleculesofwatervapor
(H2O)weighlessthanN2andO2molecules
displaced.

Densitystructureof
troposphere
Influencedbytemperatureandwatercontent
Watervaporislessdensethandryairsocauses
densityofairtodecreaseandairtorise
Warmingairmakesitlessdensesoitrises
Condensationofwatervaporreleasesheatwhich
warmstheair
Warmaircanholdmorewatervaporthancoldair

Airdensityaffectedby
pressure
Airliftedtoaltitudeexperiencesless
pressuresoexpandsandcools
Aircompressedasitdescendsfromaltitude
warms

Airmovement
Watervaporrises,expandsandcools
Condensesintocloudsorprecipitation
(cooleraircantholdasmuchwater)
Atmospherecanlosewaterbyprecipitation
Asairloseswatervaporitbecomesmore
denseandairwillthenfall,compressand
heat

Atmosphericcirculation
Poweredbysunlightunevensolarheating
About51%ofincomingenergyisabsorbed
byEarthslandandwater
Energyabsorptionvariesdependingonthe
angleofapproach,theseastateandthe
presenceoficeorothercovering(e.g.,
foam)

Heatbudget
Energyimbalancemoreenergycomesinattheequator
thanatthepoles
51%oftheshortwaveradiation(light)strikinglandis
convertedtolongerwaveradiation(heat)andtransferred
intotheatmospherebyconduction,radiationand
evaporation.
Eventually,atmosphere,landandoceanradiateheatback
tospaceaslongwaveradiation(heat)
Inputandoutflowofheatcomprisetheearthsheatbudget
Weassumethermalequilibrium(Earthisnotgetting
warmerorcooler)ortheoverallheatbudgetoftheearthis
balanced

Atmosphericcirculation
Unevensolarheatingofearth

Atmandoceansmoveheatpoleward
Airmovesfromhighpressuretolowpressure
Polewardmovementofwarmair(lessdense)
Equatorwardmovementofcoldair(more
dense)

Movementofheat
Sensibleheat
Transportedbyabodythathashigher
temperaturethanitssurroundings(conduction
and/orconvection)

Latentheat
Phasechangesofwater
Evaporationtakesupheatandcondensation
releasesheat

Unevensolarheating
HeatbudgetforparticularlatitudesisNOTbalanced
Sunlightreachingpolarlatitudesisspreadovera
greaterarea(lessradiationperunitarea)
Atpoles,lightgoesthroughmoreatmosphereso
approachessurfaceatalowanglefavoring
reflection
Tropicallatitudesgetgreaterradiationperunitarea
andlightpassesthroughlessatmospheresotheyget
moresolarenergythanpolarareas

Solarradiation
Radiationhitstheearthin
parallelrays
Incidentanglevarieswith
latitude
Energyisspreadoutovermore
area

Lessheatperarea

Passesthroughmore
atmosphere
Whichabsorbsradiation

Polesarecoolerbecausethey
receivelowerintensitysolar
radiationdotoangleofincident
radiation.

Solarradiation
Secondreasonthepolesare
cooleristhetiltoftheearth
onitsaxis

23.5o
N

Variationindaylength
Evenwhenpoleshavelong
daylength,theincidentangleis
long.

Thirdreasonisthatpolesare
fartherfromthesun

Fig. 4-1

Fig. 4-2

Seasons&solarheating
MidlatitudesNHemispherereceives3x
theamountofsolarenergyperdayinJune
thaninDecember
Duetothe23.5otiltofEarthsrotational
axis
NHemispheretiltstowardthesuninJune
andawayinDecember
Tiltcausesseasons

Figs. 4-15 and 4-16

Circulation
Atmosphericandoceaniccirculationare
governedbytheredistributionofthis
energy
Watermovesheatbetweentropicstopoles
Oceancurrentsandwatervapormoveheat.
Higherlatentheatofvaporizationmeans
vaportransfersmoreheatperunitmassthan
liquidwater.

Atmosphericcirculation
Warmairrisesandcoolairsinks
Warmairexpandsandrises
Expansioncausescoolingandcontraction
causingincreasingdensityandsinking
Airwillrisewhereitswarmerandsink
whereitscooler

Convection

Logically on the earth, one can imagine this

Fig. 13.11

Fig. 4-25

Airmovement
Airiswarmedatequatorsorises
Asitrises,itdumpsitsmoisturebecauseits
expandedandcooled
Airmovessouthtoreplaceairthatsrisen
Createszoneoflowpressure(sinkingair
createshighpressureandrisingaircreates
lowpressure.

Fig. 4-3

Atmosphericcirculation
But,thisisNOTwhathappens
Atmosphericcirculationisgovernednot
onlybyunevensolarheatingbut,
TheEarthsrotation
Eastward(CCW)rotationoftheEarthonits
axisdeflectsmovingairorwater(orany
objectwithmass).
CORIOLISeffect(1835)

CoriolisEffect
RotationoftheEarthCCW
Relativespeedsofsphereatdifferentlatitudes
Causedbyanobserversmovingframeof
referenceonaspinningEarth
Curveisslightlytotherightofinitialpathinthe
northernhemisphere
Curveisslightlytotheleftofinitialpathinthe
southernhemisphere

Relative speeds of objects at different

radii moving at the same angular speed

Airplane
Coriolis

Corioliseffectandatmospheric
circulation
Corioliseffectinfluenceswinddirection
Endupwith3setsofcellsby30deg,flowhasbeen
deflected90deg
Airisdeflectedbeforegettingallthewayfromequatorto
poles
Aironlymakesitabout1/3ofthewaytothepolesbeforeit
becomesdenseenoughtosink
Descendingairturnsbacktowardequatorwhenitreachesthe
surfacebecauseitisagaindeflectedtotheright
Heatsupwhenitgetsbacktoequatorandrisesagain.

Fig. 4-11

Fig. 4-7
Hadley Cell

Fig. 4-6

Hadley Cell

Fig. 4-18

Fig. 4-19 Pressure at sea-level (mbars)

Atmosphericcirculation&
precipitation
Aircarrieswatervapor
Ingeneral,upliftofairmassesinducesprecipitation
Conversely,descendingairaffectsdistributionofdeserts
DescendingarmsofHadleycells
Continentalinteriors
Leeward(downwind)ofmountains
Westcoastsofmajorcontinentsduetoupwellingand
offshorecurrents

Deserts offset from convergence zones where there is high precipitation.

Deserts at divergence zones.

Featuresofthemodel
Atboundaries,airismovingvertically
Surfacewindsareweakanderratic

Equatorialregion
Lotsofrainashumidairrisesandlosesmoisture(rainforests)
Doldrums
Intertropicalconvergencezone(ITCZ)windsconverge

30oNandSregion
Sinkingairisaridandevaporation>>precipitation(deserts
andhighsalinity)
Horselatitudes

Featuresofthemodel
Airmoveshorizontallywithinthecellsfromareasofhigh
pressuretoareasoflowpressure
TropicalareasHadleycells
Surfacewindsarestronganddependable
Tradewindsoreasterliescenteredat~15oN(northeasttradewinds)
and~15oS(southeasttradewinds)
Surfacewindmovesfromhorselatitudestodoldrumssocomeoutof
northeastinNhemisphere

MidlatitudeareasFerrelcells
Westerliescenteredat~45oNand~45oS
Surfacewindmovesfromhorselatitudestopolarcellssocomesoutof
southwestintheNhemisphere

The6celledmodel
Notexactlycorrecteither
NorthSouthvariation
Landversuswaterdistribution
Equatortopoleflowofairdifferentdependingonamount
oflandataparticularlongitude
ITCZnarrowerandmoreconsistentoverlandthanocean
SeasonaldifferencesgreaterinNhemisphere(remember,
moreland)

Theoceansthermostaticeffectreducesirregularities
duetosurfaceconditionsatdifferentlongitudes

Distributions of land masses

-Differential heating and cooling
-Land heats up and cools more rapidly

NorthSouthvariation(cont)
Offsetattheequator
Geographicalvs.meteorologicalequator
Meteorologicalequatoris~5oNofgeographicalequator
(thermalequilibriumbetweenhemispheres)
MeteorologicalequatorandITCZgenerallycoincideand
changewithseasons(movesNinnorthernsummer)
Atmosphericandoceaniccirculationissymmetrical
aroundthemeteorologicalequatorNOTthe
geographicalequator!

Seasonality

Seasonality important
Shifts in polar front and the ITCZ meteorological equator

WestEastvariations
Airoverchilledcontinentsbecomescoldanddensein
thewinter
Airsinkscreatinghighpressureovercontinents
Airoverrelativelywarmerwatersrises(possiblywith
watervapor)creatinglowpressurezonesoverwater
Airflowsfromhighpressuretolowpressure
modifyingairflowwithincells
Reversesituationinsummer
EffectspronouncedinNhemisphere(midlatitudes)
wherethereisaboutthesameamountofland&water

Winds over the Pacific

on two days in Sept
1996
Stronger winds in redorange
Notes:
Deviates from 6-cell
model
Strong westerlies hitting
Canada
Strong tradewinds
(easterlies) over Hawaii
Extratropical cyclone
east of New Zealand

CirculationoftheAtmosphere
Mostofthevariationfromthe6cellmodel
isdueto
Geographicaldistributionoflandmasses
Differentresponseoflandandoceantosolar
heating
Chaoticflow

Overlongterm6cellmodelisprettygood
fordescribingaverageflow

 Majorsurfacewindandpressuresystemsoftheworldand
theirweather
Thesewindpatternsmove2/3ofheatfromtropicstopoles.

Monsoons
Patternofwindcirculationthatchanges
withtheseason
Generallywetsummersanddrywinters
Linkedtodifferentheatcapacitiesofland
andwaterandtoNSmovementofthe
ITCZ

Wetseason
Inthespring,landheats(fasterthanwater)
Warmairoverlandrisescreatinglow
pressure
Coolairflowsfromoceantoland
Thishumidairheatsandrises(rainsform)

DrySeason
Landcools(fasterthanocean)
Aircoolsandsinksoverlandcreatinghigh
pressure
Drysurfacewindmovesseaward
Warmsandrisesoverwater(withor
withoutevaporationandrainoverwater)

Monsoons
MostintenseoverAsiawhereyouhavea
hugelandmassintheNandahugeocean
totheS
MonsoonoverIndiacauseswetseason
(summer)fromAprilOctober(upto10
meters425inchesofrainperyear)
SmallermonsooninNAmerica(Gulfof
MexicoandSE)

Dry season

Wet season

ITCZ
ITCZ

SeaandLandbreezes
Dailychangesinwinddirectionduetounequal
heatingandcoolingoflandversuswater
Warmairduringdayonlandrisesandcoolair
fromseamovesonshore(withorwithoutwater
vapor)
Warmerairoverwaterrisesandcoolaironland
duringthenightsinksandmovesoffshore

Daytime Onshore Breeze

Nighttime Offshore Breeze

Fig. 4-17