POWER PLANT

ENGINEERING
Module II

Gas Turbine Power

Plants

GAS TURBINE CYCLEBRAYTON CYCLE

Ideal Brayton Cycle

Brayton cycle is a constant pressure cycle for a perfect

gas. It is also called Joule cycle.
The heat transfers are achieved in reversible constant
pressure heat exchangers. An ideal gas turbine plant would
perform the processes that make up a Brayton cycle.

Open Cycle Gas TurbineActual Brayton Cycle

The fundamental gas turbine unit is one operating on the
open cycle in which a rotary compressor and a turbine are
mounted on a common shaft.
Air is drawn into the compressor and after compression
passes to a combustion chamber. Energy is supplied in the
combustion chamber by spraying fuel into the air stream,
and the resulting hot gases expand through the turbine to
the atmosphere.
In order to achieve net work output from the unit, the
turbine must develop more gross work output than is
required to drive the compressor and to overcome
mechanical losses in the drive.
The products of combustion coming out from the turbine
are exhausted to the atmosphere as they cannot be used
any more. The working fluids (air and fuel) must be
replaced continuously as they are exhausted into the
atmosphere.

Methods for Improvement of Thermal

Efficiency of Open Cycle Gas Turbine
Plant
The following methods are employed
to increase the specific output and
thermal efficiency of the plant :
1. Intercooling
2. Reheating
3. Regeneration.

Intercooling

A compressor in a gas turbine cycle utilizes the major

percentage of power developed by the gas turbine. The work
required by the Compressor can be reduced by compressing
the air in two stages and incorporating an intercooler between
the two as shown in Fig below

Reheating
The output of a gas turbine can be amply improved
by expanding the gases in two stages with a
reheater between the two as shown in Fig. The H.P.
turbine drives the compressor and the L.P. turbine
provides the useful power output. The corresponding
T-s diagram is shown in Fig. The line 4-L represents
the expansion in the L.P. turbine if reheating is not
employed.

Regeneration

The exhaust gases from a gas turbine carry a large quantity

of heat with them since their temperature is far above the
ambient temperature.
They can be used to heat the air coming from the
compressor thereby reducing the mass of fuel supplied in the
combustion chamber.
Fig. shows a gas turbine plant with a regenerator. The
corresponding T-s diagram is shown in Fig. 2-3 represents the
heat flow into the compressed air during its passage through
the heat exchanger and 3-4 represents the heat taken in
from the combustion of fuel. Point 6 represents the
temperature of exhaust gases at discharge from the heat
exchanger.
The maximum temperature to which the air could be heated
in the heat exchanger is ideally that of exhaust gases, but
less than this is obtained in practice because a temperature
gradient must exist for an unassisted transfer of energy.

Diesel Power Plant

Diesel engine power plants are installed
where
1. Supply of coal and water is not available
in desired quantity.
2. Where power is to be generated in small
quantity for emergency services.
3. Standby sets are required for continuity
of supply such as in hospital, telephone
exchange.
It is an excellent prime mover for electric
generator capacities of from 100 hp to 5000
hp.
The Diesel units used for electric generation

ADVANTAGE OF DIESEL POWER

PLANT
1. Very simple design also simple installation.
2. Limited cooling water requirement.
3. Standby losses are less as compared to other Power
plants.
4. Low fuel cost.
5. Quickly started and put on load.
6. Smaller storage is needed for the fuel.
7. Layout of power plant is quite simple.
8. There is no problem of ash handling.
9. Less supervision required.
10. For small capacity, diesel power plant is more
efficient as compared to steam power plant.
11. They can respond to varying loads without any
difficulty.

DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF DIESEL POWER PLANT

1.
.
.
.

Fuel Storage and Fuel Supply System:

The fuel storage and supply arrangement generally depend on the type of
fuel, size of plant and type of engine used and so on.
The supply system is generally classified as (a) Simple suction system and
(b) Transfer system
In a simple suction system, the oil is taken by a suction pump driven by
engines from service tank located a few cm below the engine level. Such
pump delivers constant volume of fuel, therefore an overflow line is
required back to the tank. This system is used for small capacity plant. In
transfer system, the motor driven pump takes the oil from main storage
and supply the day-storage tank. The oil from day-storage tank flows under
gravity to the engine pump This type of system is shown in Fig. 23.2 and 'it
is generally preferred for medium size or bi size power plants.
The location of storage tank above ground or below ground depends upon
local conditions. Each of them has specific advantages. The over ground
tanks have the advantages of detecting the leak easily, low maintenance
and easy cleaning. On the other hand, underground tanks have the
advantage of reduced fire hazards.
The heating requirement depends upon the climatic conditions and
viscosity of the fuel used. If the heating is required, then it is generally
done in the storage tank by passing the hot jacket water through a coil
dipped in the storage tank.

Injection of Fuel into the Engine :

The functions of the fuel injection system are to meter small amount of
oil, inject into the cylinder at proper time, atomize and mix with the air.
The efficiency of the engine depends upon the proper mixing of fuel with
air. Mixing becomes more difficult with an increase in speed and increase
in cylinder diameter. Presently, in all diesel power plants "solid injection"
is used. The fuel at a pressure of 100 to 400 bar is injected through
nozzle into the compressed air which also helps to atomize the oil. The
common methods which are used for fuel injection system are individual
pump, common rail and distributor system.
2. Air-supply System:
A large diesel engine power plant requires considerable amount of air as
4 to 8 m3/kW-hr. The air contains lot of dust and, therefore, it is
necessary to remove this dust from air before entering into the cylinder
which would otherwise cause excessive wear in the engine. An air-supply
system oaf diesel power plant begins with an intake located outside the
building provided with filters. The filters used may be oil-impingement,
oil-bath or drag type depending upon the dust type and dust
concentrations in the air. In many parts of western countries, the outside
air temperature may reach such a level that it causes misfiring at low
loads on the plant. Under such circumstances, the air intake system
needs heating and necessary heating of air is provided by using the heat
from the exhaust gases.

3. Exhaust System :
The following points should be taken into consideration for the design of
exhaust system of a big diesel power plant.
(a) The noise should be reduced to a tolerable degree.
(b) It should be exhausted well above the ground level to reduce the air
pollution at breathing level.
(c) The pressure loss in the system should be reduced to minimum.
(d) The vibrations of exhaust system must be isolated from the plant by use
of flexible exhaust pipe.
(e) A provision should be made to extract the heat from exhaust if the
heating
is required for fuel oil heating or building heating or process
heating.

In many cases, the temperature of the exhaust gases under full load
conditions may be of the order of 400C. With the recovery of heat from
hot jacket water and exhaust gases and its use either for heating oil or
buildings in cold weather increase the thermal efficiency to 80%. Nearly
40% of the heat in the fuel can be recovered from the hot jacket water
and exhaust gases. The heat from the exhaust can also be used for
generating the steam at low pressure which can be used for process
heating. Nearly 2 kg of steam at 8 bar pressure can be generated per
kW per hour, when the mass of exhaust gases can be taken as 10
kg/kW-hr.

4.Water-cooling system:
If the engines are not properly cooled, the temperature existing inside
engines would disintegrate the film of lubricating oil on the liners and
wrapping of valves and pistons takes place. The proper cooling of the
engine is absolutely necessary to extend the life of the plant. Therefore,
exit temperature of the cooling water must be controlled. If it is too low,
lubricating oil will not spread properly and wearing of piston and cylinder
takes place. If it is too high, the lubricating oil burns. Therefore, the
maximum exit temperature of the water is limited to 70C. Constant
cooling water flow rate rises the exit water temperature with the increase
in load or vice versa when inlet water temperature is constant. Therefore,
a control on the flow of cooling water is necessary according to the load
conditions on the plant.
The water which is not soft will cause deposits at temperature of about
50C. Therefore, it is necessary to soften the water before entering into
the system and to prevent the growth of algae which may reduce the
heat transfer due to fouling.
The cooling water is treated with 3 ppm Calgon to control the scaling in
the different parts of the system and it is also chlorinated once per shift
upto 6 ppm to prevent algae growth which would cause the rapid tube
fouling. For inhibiting corrosion, 300 ppm of sodium chromate is also
added. Generally, the quantity of cooling water required is 35 to 60 litres
per kW per hour.

As the circulation of water in the cooling system is concerned,

these are generally divided into a single circuit system and double
circuit system. These two systems are shown in Fig. 23.4 (a) and
Fig. 23.4 (b).
The single circuit system may be subjected to corrosion in the
cylinder jackets because of the dissolved gases in the cooling
water. The double circuit system largely eliminates internal jacket.
Corrosion but the corrosion may exist in the raw water circuit.

5. Lubrication System:
The role played by the lubrication system in diesel power plant is
more important than any other plant because of very high
pressures and small clearance in these engines. The life of the
engine, the overall efficiency of the plant and possible continuous
service of the plant are dependent on the effectiveness of the
lubrication system.
Main parts to be lubricated of a diesel engine are crankshaft, wrist
pin bearings, bearings and all other moving parts. The lubrication
of piston and cylinder is little different as special lubricant is
required for this purpose as the lubricant has to operate under
high pressure and temperature conditions.
The forced feed lubrication is generally used to lubricate all the
parts. The general equipments which are used in lubrication
system are pump, oil cleaners, oil coolers, storage, sump tanks
and safety devices.

 The friction losses of the engine will appear as the heating of the
lubricating oil during its circulation through the engine. Generally,
2.5% of the fuel heat is given to the lubricating oil and it is necessary
to remove this heat for proper functioning of the lubrication. This
heat nearly amounts to 300 kJ/kW-hr. The lubricant oil is cooled in an
oil cooler before supplying to the engine. The cooling is done by
using the water from the pump of the cooling tower.
Another important problem of the lubrication system is to remove
the impurities in the form of carbon particles, water and metal scrap
carried by the oil during circulation. For this purpose, filters,
centrifuges or chemical cleaning plants are used. The mechanical
type of filters used are cloth bags, wood pads, paper pads and
porous material pads. Many times, the oil from the engine is filtered
by passing through the metal screen strainers and ultimate cleaning
is accomplished by passing the oil through centrifugal cleaner. This is
necessary in high capacity plant as the quantity of lubricating oil
circulated is approximately two thousand liters per hour for 1MW
plant. The oil should be heated before passing through the cleaning
system. This is necessary to increase the fluidity of the oil.
The cost of the lubricating oil in the diesel plant is considerable
compared with other plants as the consumption is nearly 3 liters per
1000 kW-hr generated at full load conditions. Thus the lubricating oil
consumption is nearly 1% of the fuel oil consumption. Well refined
mineral oil is best suited for slow speed engines but specially treated
oil is required for heavy duty and high speed engines.

6. Starting system:
It is difficult to start even smallest diesel engine by hand
cranking as the compression pressures are extremely high.
Therefore, some mechanical system must be used to start the
engine. Generally, compressed air, electric motors and auxiliary
gasoline engines are used for starting purposes. Compressed
air system is commonly used in big diesel power plants
Air starting system uses valve arrangement to admit
pressurized air at about 20 bar to a few of the cylinders,
making them to act as reciprocating air motors to turn the
engine shaft. Admitting fuel oil to the remaining engine
cylinder helps the engine to start under its own power.
During normal working of the plant, the power from the main
shaft is used to drive the compressor which accumulates air
into the accumulators. Once the accumulators indicate the
rated
pressure,
the
compressors
are
automatically
disconnected from the power shaft.
For automatic starting system, the ordinary air starting
equipments are arranged to open in the correct sequence and
close when the engine starts running. The automatic starting
system is also used to prime the lubricating oil system and to
start the automatic flow of the cooling water also.

7. Governing system:
The governing of diesel engine is done by varying the
quantity of fuel supplied to the engine. Generally
constant stroke with variable suction or variable bypass
method is used to control the quantity oil fuel supplied
according to load. Centrifugal type governor is used to
control the suction or bypass of the fuel.

PERFORMANCE OF DIESEL POWER PLANT

Diesel plants also run at part load conditions like other

plants. Therefore, it is necessary to study the effect of part
load running on the characteristics of an engine like
specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, and
mechanical efficiency.
The effects of part loads on the engine characteristics are
shown in Fig. 23.6. The part load increases the specific fuel
consumption, decreases the thermal and mechanical
efficiency. But the effect is not as predominant as in
thermal plants.

PLANT LAYOUT

The layouts of diesel power plants for high capacity (50 MW and
above), medium capacity (25 to 50 MW) and low. capacity plants are
shown in Fig. 23.7 (a), Fig. 23.7 (b) and Fig. 23.7 (c).
Generally in all three cases, the generating units are installed
parallel. Sufficient space must be provided around the various units
for dismantling and repairing purposes. The fuel oil tanks are
generally located outside the main buildings to avoid the fire
hazards.
The construction of buildings and engine layout are similar in many
respects to the steam power plants, although on a much smaller
scale. A steel frame with brick panels and asbestos roof is quite
satisfactory. Good natural lighting can be provided by including
large vertical or horizontal windows in the side walls and rows of
skylights in the engine house roof.
A workshop must be situated at one end of engine house with rail or
roadway running across it, so that the crane can be used to unload
direct from the wagons.
The ventilation. problem of engine house' is not easy job
particularly in hot climate, Generally, forced circulation with
evaporative cooling is used for cooling the engine room. The air
ducts are placed in the basement wall at the alternator side and
supply air to the alternator pits and to the operating floor for
cooling the buildings.

ADVANTAGES OF DIESEL PLANTS OVERTHERMAL PLANTS

1. The diesel power plants are more efficient than steam power
plants in the range of 150 MW capacity. They maintain high
operating efficiency in the load range of5()1t to 100% of full load.
2. Diesel plants are cheaper in first cost than steam plants; plant
units upto about 7 kW. Above this capacity, the diesel cost rises
rapidly while that of steam plants continues to fall.
3. It has no standby losses.
4. It can burn fairly wide range of fuels.
5. It can be quickly started up and brought into service (within one
minute).
6. Manufacturing periods are short, therefore, a diesel station may
be rapidly extended to keep pace with load growth by just adding
the generating units of suitable sizes.
7. Where skilled labour is scarce, the full automation of diesel
station can be provided for starting, synchronizing and shutting
down diesel sets with reasonably low capital costs.
8. Maintenance can be simplified by the provision of easily
replaceable assemblies of parts, thus enabling reconditioning to
be undertaken away from generating plants.
9'. It is possible to install compact, light weight, high speed diesel
sets of smaller capacity for sites that are remote, cramped or
difficult to access. This was the main reason in adopting many

11. The diesel plants can be located very near to the load centers,
many times in the heart of the town. The diesel plants are
admirably suited to load centre location. The combination of fuel
economy, remote operational control, flexibility as to installed
capacity and high degree of freedom from hazard allow placement
of diesel generation sets almost anywhere that it would be useful
and economical.
12. The space required for diesel plant is considerably less than
thermal plant and, therefore, cost of foundation and buildings is
less.
13. The storage required for the fuel is considerably less than the
thermal and it can be handled more easily.
14. There is no problem of ash handling as there is practically no
refuse.
15. The plant layout ,is very simple compared with thermal plant.
They are easy to operate and control.
16. The lubrication system is not only more economical but permits
the use of specially compounded cylinder lubricants that provide
dramatic improvement in wear rates. The cylinder .liner life of
50,000 to 100,000 hours is common even burning the poorest
grade of residual oils. The lubrication cost of diesel plant is 0.5
mills per kW-hr, even burning residual fuel oils which is 2 to 5
times compared with steam plant.
17. They can be employed in all climatic zones.

DISADVANTAGE OF DIESEL POWER

PLANT
1. The unit capacity of diesel engine is considerably lower than
the thermal unit. The cost of unit increases with an increase
in unit capacity for diesel plant whereas the cost of the unit
goes on decreasing in case of thermal plant with an increase
in unit capacity.
2. The repair and maintenance costs are generally much higher
than for steam plants, These costs are more or less fixed in
case of steam plants and more or less are proportional to
output in the case of diesel plants.
3. Life of 25 to 30 years is normal for thermal plant whereas
the life of diesel plants hardly 2 to 5 years or less.
4. The diesel plants are not economical where fuel has to be
imported.
5. The noise is a serious problem in diesel plant.
6. Selected types of fuels are required in diesel engines
whereas there is more mobility in case of thermal plant.
7. The lubrication cost is high.
8. The diesel plants are not guaranteed for continuous
operation under overloads whereas steam plants can work
under 25% overload continuously.

APPLICATION OF DIESEL POWER

PLANT

Since there are many disadvantage of diesel power

plant, although the plant find wide application in the
following fields.
1. They are quite suitable for mobile power generation
and are widely used in transportation systems
consisting of railroads, ships, automobiles and aero
planes.
2. They can be used for electrical power generation in
capacities from 100 to 5000 H.P.
3. They can be used as standby power plants.
4. They can be used as peak load plants for some other
types of power plants
5. Industrial concerns where power requirement are small
say of the order of 500 kW, diesel power plants become
more economical due to their higher overall efficiency.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

NUCLEAR REACTOR

A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which

heat is produced due to nuclear fission chain
reaction.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Nuclear Fuel
Moderator
Control Rods
Reflector
Reactors Vessel
Biological Shielding
Coolant.

NUCLEAR FUEL

MODERATOR
In the chain reaction the neutrons produced are fast
moving neutrons.
These fast moving neutrons are far less effective in
causing the fission of U235 and try to escape from
the reactor. To improve the utilization of these
neutrons their speed is reduced. It is done by
colliding them with the nuclei of other material
which is lighter, does not capture the neutrons but
scatters them.
Each such collision causes loss of energy, and the
speed of the fast moving neutrons is reduced. Such
material is called Moderator. The slow neutrons
(Thermal Neutrons) so produced are easily captured
by the nuclear fuel and the chain reaction proceeds
smoothly.
Graphite, heavy water and beryllium are generally

MODERATING
RATIO

To characterize a moderator it is
best to use so called moderating ratio
which is the ratio of moderating
power to the macroscopic neuron
capture coefficient.
A high value of moderating ratio
indicates that the given substance is
more suitable for slowing down the
neutrons in a reactor. Table 10.3
indicates the moderating ratio for

Control Rods
The Control and operation of a nuclear reactor is quite
different from a fossil and fuelled (coal or oil fired)
furnace.
The furnace is fed continuously and the heat energy in
the furnace is controlled by regulating the fuel feed,
and the combustion air whereas a nuclear reactor
contains as much fuel as is sufficient to operate a
large power plant for some months.
The consumption of this fuel and the power level of the
reactor depends upon its neutron flux in the reactor
core.
The energy produced in the reactor due to fission of
nuclear fuel during chain reaction is so much that if it
is
not
controlled
properly
the entire
core
and
surrounding structure may melt and radioactive fission
products may come out of the reactor thus making it
uninhabitable.
This implies that we should have some means to control
the power of reactor. This is done by means of control
rods.

REFLECTOR
The neutrons produced during the fission process will be
partly absorbed by the fuel rods, moderator, coolant or
structural material etc.
Neutrons left unabsorbed will try to leave the reactor
core never to return to it and will be lost. Such losses
should be minimized. It is done by surrounding the
reactor core by a material called reflector which will
send the neutrons back into the core.
The returned neutrons can then cause more fission and
improve the neutrons economy of' the reactor. Generally
the reflector is made up of graphite and beryllium.

REACTOR
VESSEL
It is a strong walled container housing the cure of the
power reactor. It contains moderator,
thermal shielding and control rods.

reflector,

Pressurized Water
Reactor

 The arrangement of pressurised water reactor is shown in

Fig. In its simplest form, a pressurised water reactor is a
light water cooled and moderated reactor. It usesenriched uranium as fuel.
The pressurizing tank included in the circuit maintains the
constant pressure in the circuit throughout the load range.
Electric heating coil in the pressuriser boils the water to
form the steam which is collected in the dome as shown
in figure and pressurises the entire coolant circuit before
starting reactor.
To reduce the pressure, water spray is used to condense
the steam.
The fuel which is generally used is UO .The uranium oxide
is highly resistant to irradiation damage and is very well
adopted to the high burn-ups. It is also highly resistant to
corrosion by high pressure water in the event of a breakup in the fuel cladding.
The water in the primary circuit gets heated by absorbing
the fission energy in the reactor core and same energy is

Advanta
ges

1. The water which is used as coolant, moderator and

reflector is cheap in first cost and available in plenty. .
2. The reactor is compact and higher power density
(65kW per litre)is the most distinguished feature of
modern PWR cores. Fuel loading of 190 tons can be
made in modern PWR.
3. The desirable characteristics of modern PWR are
requirement of small number of control rods. The
reactivity changes associated with fuel depletion and
formation of fission products are compensated by
neutron absorber and hardly less than 60 control rods
are required in 1000 MW plant of this type.
4. The separation of secondary circuit from primary
provides the capability to optimize the turbine cycle for
the purpose of low heat rate supply. Normal turbine
maintenance technique can be used as the steam is not
contaminated by radiation.

6. PWR allows to reduce the fuel cost extracting more

energy per unit weight of fuel as PWR is ideally suited
to the utilization of fuel designed for higher burn-ups.
7. The high negative temperature coefficient of a
pressurised water reactor contributes greatly to its safe
and stable operation and the safe regulation of the
reactor is possible. The control rods normally need not
be used for the load change. The rods are generally
used only during start-up and to adjust for slow
reactivity changes.
8.. Another desirable characteristic of this reactor is
power demand coefficient; that is, when more power is
demanded, the reactor responds to supply the same.
The negative temperature coefficient makes this almost
automatic. This positive power demand coefficient is
not a characteristic of the other reactors. On the other
hand, the power demand coefficient is negative for

Disadvanta
ges

1. High primary circuit pressure requires strong pressure

vessel and so high capital cost.
2. The thermodynamic efficiency of this plant is as low as
20% due to low pressure (60- 70 bar) in the secondary
circuit.
3. The corrosion problems are more severe as the
corrosion is accelerated in the presence of high
pressure, high temperature water. Therefore, use of
stainless steel for vessel and cladding is necessary
which further increases the cost of the plant.'
4. It is necessary to shut down the reactor for fuel
charging which requires a couple of months' time.
5. Fuel suffers radiation damage and, therefore, its
reprocessing is difficulty. Presently Westinghouse is
offering PWR plants up to 1000 MW capacity and it is
predicted that by the end of this decade, the largest
unit of2500 to 3000 MW capacity will be available of

Boiling Water Reactor

In this (BWR)
type of reactor, enriched uranium

is used as fuel and water is used as

coolant, moderator and reflector like
PWR except the steam is generated in
the reactor itself instead of separate
steam boiler. The arrangement of the
single circuit system is shown in Fig.
above
The majority of the power plants in
U.S.A. are of PWR and BWR types as
diffusion plants are established for
enrichment of fuel during second world

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Boiling water reactor power plant with

single Circuit

Advantages
1. The pressure inside the reactor vessel is considerably
smaller than PWR as water is allowed to boil inside the
reactor. Therefore, the reactor vessel can be much
lighter than PWR and reduces the cost of pressure
vessel considerably.
2. This reactor does not require steam generator,
pressuriser, circulating pump and connecting piping.
Therefore, the cost is further reduced.
3. The metal surface temperature is lower than PWR as
boiling is allowed inside the reactor. The temperature of
the fuel surface is 240C to get the steam of 30 bar in
BWR whereas the temperature of fuel surface is 320C
and pressure is 115 bar in PWR to supply the steam to
the turbine at 30 bar.
4. A boiling water reactor is more stable than PWR and
much stable than any other type of reactor as increase
in the reactivity increases the steam formation and
reduces the hydrogen content per unit volume. The
reactivity automatically is reduced as the vapour is not

Disadvantages
1. The boiling water reactor cannot meet a sudden
increase in power demand because as the power
output of the turbine increases, the pressure in the
reactor falls and the specific volume increases. The
steam bubbles within the reactor would expand,
expel the moderator and tend to shut down the
reactor.
2. The steam leaving the reactor is slightly radioactive
with an half-life of the order of 15 minutes. Therefore,
light shielding of turbine and piping is necessary.
3. The power density of this reactor is nearly 50% (33.6
kW/litre) of PWR, therefore, the size of the vessel will
be considerably large compared with PWR.
4. The possibility of burn-out" of fuel is more in this
reactor than PWR as boiling of water on the surface of
fuel is allowed. As the surface heat flux is increased
beyond 500 kJ/cm2/hr which is always possible in
boiling region, the fuel outer surface is blanked with

 The single circuit cycle does not adjust

heat output corresponding to the power
requirement for the reason mentioned
above. The change in demand can be
fulfilled by the dual cycle as shown in Fig.
28.4 (a) or Fig. 28.4 (b).
In this arrangement; the high pressure
steam from the reactor is directly supplied
to the H.P. turbine and the low pressure
steam formed either by throttling the high
temperature water or generating the
steam with the use of high temperature
water, is fed to the L.P. turbine. This dual
supply arrangement is used to govern the
speed of the turbine by low pressure

Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated CANDU

(CANadian Deuterium Uranium) Type Reactor
These reactors are more economical to those
nations which do not produce enriched uranium
as the enrichment of uranium is very costly. In
this type of reactor, the natural uranium (0.7%
U235) is used as fuel and heavy water as
moderator.
This type of reactor was first designed and
developed in Canada. The first heavy water
-reactor in Canada using heavy water as coolant
and moderator of 200 MW capacity with 29.1%
thermal efficiency was established at Douglas
(Ontario) known as Douglas power station. The
arrangement of the different components off
hand type reactor is shown in Fig. 28.5.
The coolant heavy water is passed through the

Douglas-point Candu Type heavy water moderated

and cooled nuclear reactor power plant.

The control of the reactor is achieved by varying the

moderator level in the reactor and therefore, control rods are
not required. For rapid shutdown purposes, the moderator
can be dumped through a very large area into a tank

Advantages:

1. The major advantage of this reactor is that the

fuel need not be enriched.
2. The reactor vessel may be built to withstand
low pressure compared with PWR and BWR.
Only the fuel tubes are designed to withstand
high pressure, therefore, the cost of the vessel
is less.
3. No control rods are required, therefore, control
is much easier than other types.
4. The moderator can be kept at low temperature
which increases its effectiveness in slowingdown neutrons.
5. Heavy water being a very good moderator, this
type of reactor has higher multiplication factor
and low fuel consumption.

Disadvantages

1. The cost of heavy water is extremely high (Rs.

500/kg).
2. The leakage is a major problem as there are two
mechanically sealed closures per fuel channel.
Canadian designs generally are based on
recovering high proportion of heavy water leakage
as absolute leak-tightness cannot be assured.
3. Very high standard of design, manufacture
inspection and maintenance are required;4. The power density is considerably low (9.7
kW/litre) compared with PWR and BWR therefore,
the reactor size is extremely large.
Even though CANDU-type reactors look
promising in future, light water reactors all over the
world proved more efficient than heavy water and in

Gas Cooled Reactors

The reactor is cooled by the gas and

the heat carried by the gas from the
reactor is either used for generating
steam in the secondary circuit like
PWR or it can be directly used as the
working fluid in gas turbine plant.
Indirect Circuit
Direct Circuit

Indirect circuits.

Single pressure steam cycle.

The carbon dioxide gas is used as primary

coolant which in turn generates steam in the
secondary circuit as shown in Fig. The
corresponding temperature enthalpy diagram

 The inlet temperature of the turbine is fixed by the

reactor outlet temperature. The temperature potential
causing the heat transfer from gas to steam in the
reactor is very small (5-15C). Therefore, it is necessary
to balance the power required to circulate the gas at
higher velocities against the increased capital costs for
extended heat transfer surfaces.
The choice of the feed water temperature for a given
steam pressure affects the temperature of the gas at
the inlet of the reactor. A "pinch point" occurs where
the feed water temperature reaches the saturation
temperature and approaches to within a few degrees of
the gas temperature at pinch point.
Therefore, the steam pressure in the cycle is limited to
the pressure corresponding the saturation pressure at
"pinch point". If less heat is added in the economiser
and pinch point occurs at lower gas temperature

 The Hinkely point power station of 248 MW capacity with 26%

efficiency at Somerset in England is an example of this type of power
plant. The reactor consists of a spherical pressure vessel made of low
carbon steel. The core is a twenty-four sided prism in which the fuel
rods are arranged between graphite bricks which act as a moderator
and reflector. The reactor is surrounded by a concrete shield about 3
metre thick which acts as a biological shield. The CO2 gas is used as
coolant, graphite as moderator and natural uranium as fuel.
The cycle efficiency is approximately proportional to the area under
water-steam line on the temperature- enthalpy diagram. Therefore,
the cycle efficiency can be increased by combining a number of steam
cycles having different pressures and pinch points. The maximum
number is limited to two due to increased complexity and capital cost.
It is clear from Fig. 28.6 (b) that with dual pressure arrangement, a
further "pinch point" is added and substantial quantity of steam is
obtained at higher pressure. The quantities of steam generated at
high and low pressure are in the proportion of 2 : 1 which is
represented by the comparative lengths of the two horizontal lines.
The dual pressure steam cycle was adopted for Calder Hall power
plant in U.K. These types of reactors are very popular in U.K. as 26
reactors of this type were built by the end of 1971. This type of
reactor is generally known with a name as "Magnox".

Advantages

1. The greatest advantage of this is a simpler fuel

processing. There is no problem of cladding the
metallic fuel. Uranium carbide and graphite are
merely ground together and reprocessed.
2. The uranium carbide and graphite are able to
resist high temperatures and, therefore, the
problem of limiting the fuel element temperature
is not as serious as in other reactors.
3. The use of CO2 as coolant completely eliminates
the possibility of
explosion in reactor which
always presents in water-cooled plants
4. There is no corrosion problem.
5. It gives better neutron economy due to low
parasitic absorption.
6. Graphite remains stable under irradiation at
high temperatures.

Disadvantages

1. Power density is very low due to low

heat transfer coefficient, therefore,
large vessel is required.
2. The loading of fuel is more elaborate
and costly.
3. The leakage of gas is a major problem
if helium is used instead of CO2,
4. Coolant circulation requires much
power as high as 10 to 20% of plant
capacity whereas only 5% is required in
water-cooled reactors
5. The critical mass is high therefore
large amount of fuel loading is initially
required.

Direct Circuit

The combination of direct closed-cycle gas

turbine with a high temperature sector gives
highest thermal efficiency and least impact
on the environment compared with any
nuclear system yet built.
Several small fossil-fired closed cycle gas
turbine
plants
for
the
production
of
electricity have been built in different parts
of the world for the advantages mentioned
earlier.
A major problem faced by the designer in the
development of closed cycle gas turbine
plants using fossil fuels is the transfer of the
heat chemically produced to the working
fluid. Another problem equally faced was
corrosion from combustion products in

 Modern steam turbine power plants provide net efficiency of

the order of 41-42% with single reheat cycle when the steam
temperature is 540C. This figure of temperature is
considered as upper limit; even still higher temperatures
may give better efficiency because relatively cheap ferritic
materials can be used for boiler tubes and steam piping.
Exceeding this steam temperature rarely brings economic
advantage.
From the point of view mentioned above, the helium cooled
reactor closed cycle gas turbine plant is simpler in
construction, low in first cost, and more compact than the
corresponding indirect cycle system. Depending on the
relationship of capital and operating cost characteristics of
a particular reactor, the direct cycle gas turbine plant can
produce cheaper power than indirect cycle steam plant even
if the efficiency of the direct closed-cycle plant is
considerably lower.
The gas turbine power plant is particularly attractive when
the operating cost is only slightly affected by station
efficiency. In fact, this feature is a particular characteristic
of helium cooled, fast breeder reactors. Such type of reactor
produces more fuel than it consumes and, therefore, it can

The direct-cycle gas turbine combined with nuclear

reactor offers many advantages over the indirect
cycle and a few of them are listed below :
1. More efficient use of high temperature heat,
generated in reactor without the temperature
degradation that necessarily occurs in indirect
steam generation cycle.
2. The capital cost is considerably reduced as number
of components of the system is reduced.
3. The power plant is more compact as high density
of working fluid can be used in the closed cycle gas
turbine plant.
4. The design of the gas turbine offers greater siting
flexibility and fewer environmental effects from
heat rejection, because it does not depend on the
water cooling.
5. Another outstanding advantage is the high
potential for further improvement in efficiency and
capacity. The present design is based on a helium

The arrangement of the components of direct closed

cycle gas turbine power plant combined with
nuclear reactor is shown in Fig. 28.8. Helium cooled
reactors combined with direct cycle gas turbines
represent a very promising solution for future
electric
power
generation.
The
detailed
development is under way and the results are
undoubtedly considered the biggest change in
electric power generation since the invention of the
steam turbine. It is predicted that many plants of
this type would be available by the end of this
century.
The first U.S. prototype HTGR of40 MW capacity
using He as coolant and using direct Fig. 28.8.
Direct cycle high
temperature reactor cycle for
power generation was established at gas turbine
power plant. Peach Buttom in 1967. Two smaller
capacity reactors of this type are also operating in
England and Germany.

There are certain advantages in using gases like

CO2 and He as coolant instead of water. A few of
them are listed below:
1. The gases do not react chemically with the
structural materials like water.
2. Gas can attain any temperature but the maximum
temperature is decided by the permissible working
temperature of the fuel. It can also be subjected to
any pressure by maintaining the fixed temperature
of the gas.
3. They also do not absorb neutrons while passing
through the reactor and helps as moderator as well
as reflector.
4. In water-cooled reactors, the reactivity varies with
the amount of water. The reactivity can be
increased or decreased with an increase or
decrease of water amount. Therefore, the reactor is
unstable. If by chance the leak develops in the fuel
channel, the reactivity of water will increase

The only drawback of a gas-cooled reactor is poor heat

transfer properties of the gases. The pumping power
required in gas cooled reactor is as large as 20% of
generated power against 5% with water-cooled
reactor. Therefore, the overall efficiency of gas cooled
reactor is lower than water-cooled reactor. The
decrease in efficiency can be compensated with an
increase in gas temperature. The overall generating
cost of gas-cooled reactor plant is less for the reasons
mentioned earlier.
The choice of the gas among carbon dioxide and
helium depends upon the cost and thermodynamic
properties of the gases. The helium is best suited as it
has negligible capture cross-section to thermal
neutrons and has high specific heat. But the cost of
helium is extremely large compared with CO2 On the
other hand, CO2 is cheap and its thermal neutron
capture cross-section is also satisfactory.
Hydrogen can also be used, as the blower power is
reduced to 10% of power required for CO2 and it has

Combined cycle

 A closed cycle helium gas turbine can be combined

with a Rankine steam cycle to achieve an appreciable
improvement in thermal efficiency. The thermal
energy in the hot gases coming out from the
regenerator for the helium cycle as described in Fig.
28.8 can be used for heating the feed water in the
Rankine
cycle.
Such
combination
is
thermodynamically advantageous and gives an overall
higher thermal efficiency than that of either the
steam or gas cycle operating separately, The
improvement in the thermal efficiency is mainly
achieved through the partial or total use of waste
heat from the gas cycle into a steam cycle.
With this combination, a simple Rankine cycle can be
transferred into a more efficient cycle with the use of
waste heat of helium in feed water heater. Usually,
the steam is extracted from the turbine for feed
heating in usual steam cycle.
The efficiency of such plant is as high as 50% is
claimed. Such types of plants are yet to be designed

Liquid Metal-Cooled Reactors

The
arrangement
of
the
components of a metal-cooled
reactor is shown in Fig. 28.10
in
which
little
enriched
uranium is used as fuel,
graphite as moderator and
sodium as coolant.
The common metals which
can be used as coolant are
sodium and potassium. The
eutectic alloy of these metals
is also used for convenience,
since it exists in liquid form
at
room
temperature.
However, sodium is best
suited as coolant as it has low
absorption cross-section (0.5
to 2 bars), low melting point
(98C), high boiling point

ADVANTAGES
1. High temperatures can be achieved in the cycle
and that means high thermal efficiency at low
cost and low cost power.
2. The sodium as a coolant need not be
pressurised.
3. The neutron absorption cross-section of sodium
is low and, therefore, it is best suited to thermal
reactor with slightly enriched fuel.
4. The low cost graphite moderator can be used as
it can retain its mechanical strength and purity
at high temperatures.
5. In other reactors, the loss of coolant increases
the reactivity because of the removal of neutron
absorber. In such cases, the reactor must be shut
down by safety rod otherwise it may cause
severe overheating. The metal-cooled reactor is

DISADVANTAGES
1. The neutron economy is reduced with an increase in
temperature because, the high energy neutrons are
subjected to resonance peaks when the moderator is hot
and increases the chances of non fissionable absorption
of neutrons.
2. It is always necessary to keep the graphite and sodium
separate as porous graphite may absorb sodium and
increase the absorption capacity of the graphite. The
penetration of sodium between the layers of graphite
can cause mechanical failure, therefore, each block of
graphite is provided with a cladding which increases the
construction cost.
3. It is necessary to shield the primary and secondary
cooling systems with concrete block as sodium becomes
highly radio-active due to neutron bombardment.
4. The leak of sodium is very dangerous compared with
other coolants as it comes out of reactor in highly
radioactive state.
5. A precaution must be taken to see that sodium does not

Organic Moderated and Cooled Reactors

 Some hydrocarbons, notably, the polyphenyls, have been

used as coolants instead of sodium. These substances are
powerful moderators as they contain only hydrogen and
carbon. Therefore, the use of separate moderator is not
necessary. The organic liquids are used as coolant as well as
moderator. Organic cooled and moderated reactor is shown in
Fig. 28.11.
Organic coolants have the advantage of sodium that the
vapour pressure is low at high useful temperatures and no
heavy pressure is required in the reactor vessel. The
additional merit with organic coolants is non- corrosive
property and, therefore, low cost mild steel piping can be
used in the system.
The Piqua Nuclear Power Plant of 11.4 MW capacity with 25%
overall efficiency near Piqua city, Ohio, in U.S.A. is an
example of such power plant. It uses enriched uranium as
fuel, a mixture of orthometa terhenyl and paratherphenyl as
coolant and moderator and boron as control rods.
Such types of power plants are not yet commercially
developed as proper technology is yet to develop. These
types of plants have better future in coming years as they
offer number of advantages over conventional reactors .

ADVANTAGES
1. They have super moderating properties.
2. Organic liquid can be used as coolant as well as moderator
and, therefore, compact core design is possible.
3. Core operating pressure is low as it has high temperature
at low vapour pressure.
4. A wide variety of fuels as uranium, uranium alloy, uranium
oxide or uranium carbide can be used with organic coolants
due to their excellent moderating properties.
5. Low carbon steel can be used for vessel and piping as
organic fluid does not corrode the tubes and, therefore,
initial capital investment is low.
6. The steam at high pressure and temperature can be
produced in the heat exchanger as the steam generated in
the system is subjected to a very small amount of
radioactivity.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Organic fluids have poorer heat transfer properties than
water.
2. Organic fluids suffer damage from radiation and heat,
tending to leave slurry deposits, on fuel-can surfaces which

BREEDER REACTORS
Nuclear fuel burn-up and mechanism of breeding
It is already mentioned earlier that the U 235 can be fissioned by slow
neutrons ejecting an average of 2.5 neutrons to maintain further
chain reaction. Among the 2.5 neutrons ejected, one neutron is
used to maintain steady state chain reaction. Among the remaining
1.5 neutrons, 0.9 neutron is captured by U 238 and 0.6 neutron is
absorbed by the coolant, moderator, structural material and the
remaining is escaped from the reactor. The absorption of neutron by
U238 converts U238 to Pu239 which is a fissile material as mentioned
earlier. This (Pu239) is a man-made fuel which can be used for further
fission, therefore, it is known as "Secondary Fuel". Similarly; Th232
can also be converted into U233 which is also secondary fissionable
fuel. The secondary fuels Pu239 and U233 can be fissioned by slow
neutrons.
Thus, the burn up of primary nuclear fuel may be compensated to
some extent by the production of secondary fuel. The compensation
is measured by a factor known as "Conversion Factor". The
conversion factor is a ratio of the number of secondary fuel atoms
formed to the number of primary fuel atoms consumed. Generally
uranium-graphite moderated reactor gives 0.9 conversion ratio.
Therefore, the final effect with uranium-graphite reactor is the
consumption of fuel (90% is recovered and 10% is consumed).

 However, a reactor can be so designed that the conversion ratio will be

unity or higher. This can be done by reducing the losses by absorption
and capture. A reactor with a conversion ratio above unity is known as
"Breeder". This fact is of great commercial importance.
It has been experienced that the amount of plutonium formed in the
reactor or is less than amount of U235 used. There is thus no profit in
their operation as breeding is concerned. These reactors are used to
produce plutonium because Pu239 is easier to separate from U238 than in
U235 as the two forms of uranium are isotopes. Since Pu239 is also
fissionable, theoretically entire mass of U238 can be converted into
fissionable Pu239.This type of breeding would bring the cost of fuel to
the cost of natural uranium (Rs. 630 per kg) instead of high cost of U 235
(Rs. 400,000 per kg). In practice, any reactor that uses natural uranium
as fuel produces plutonium which either is reused in same reactor or
is separated from fission product and can be used elsewhere. But this
is an incidental by-product and inefficient process of conversion.
A much larger prospect is offered by breeding fuel when the
conversion factor is greater than one. In breeding process, the
objective is not only to replace some of the fuel burnt but to produce
more fuel than is used which can be separated and sold as a profit
item. This attractive possibility has motivated the research in this field

 At first glance, it might appear that a nuclear reactor

with a breeding ratio equal to unity or higher could
operate indefinitely provided the spent fertile material
(U238 or Th232) is replenished. But this is not so in
practice.
Because
uranium
fission
products
are
accumulated during reactor operation and many of these
are strong absorbers of neutrons, therefore, the fraction
of un productively absorbed neutrons increases with
time and reactivity gradually falls bringing the chain
reaction (reactor) to a halt. This circumstance imposes
serious limitation on maximum possible fuel burn-up and
on continuous reactor operation.
As the reactor continues operating, U 235 is used up and
its concentration reduces. At the same time, neutron
absorption by U238 results in the production ofPu 239. The
concentration of Pu239 increases continuously at a rate
equal to that of the decrease in U 235 concentration, then
it becomes slower because the formed Pu 239 also takes
part in the fission. Finally, the concentration ofPu 239
reaches a saturation point.

 The average number of thermal neutrons emitted with U 235

as fuel is 2.12. With one being used to maintain the chain
reaction only 1.12 remain for breeding. This is not enough
for breeding because the margin of 0.12 neutron is not
enough to allow for neutron losses. With plutonium as fuel,
the situation is even worse as the number of neutrons at
thermal energy level is only 1.94. But situation is different
if neutrons are used not at their energy level but at their
original high velocity energy level. With fast neutrons, the
chances of fission are less and chances of neutron capture
to change U238 to Pu239 or Th232 or U233 are relatively greater
as their absorption cross-sections (U 238 and Th232) are
considerably larger at higher neutron energy level.
Therefore the breeding possibility is considerably higher
with fast neutrons and, therefore, breeder reactors are
necessarily fast reactors. They do not use the moderators
to slow down the neutrons to thermal speed. The fuel used
must be necessarily enriched uranium or plutonium.

Doubling time of the system.

The accumulating rate of fissionable fuel in breeder reactors
is expressed in 'doubling time'. It is the time needed for the
initial fissionable material to be doubled. The effectiveness of
the breeding reactors is best characterised by a term called'
'System Doubling Time". The typical system doubling times
for helium-cooled and sodium-cooled fast breeder reactors
are 10 and 20 years respectively.
Fast Breeder Reactor.
In fast breeder reactor, an enriched uranium or *plutonium
(upto 10%)is kept in the casing without moderator. The
casing is surrounded by fairly thick blanket of depleted fertile
uranium. The ejected excess-neutrons are absorbed by the
fertile blanket and it converts into fissile material. The heat
produced in the reactor core is carried by liquid metal. The
arrangement of Fermi fast breeder reactor is shown in Fig.
28.12.

 The Fermi-fast breeder reactor located at Lagoona

Beach, Detroit, Michigan in U.S.A. is first fast breeder
reactor of the world. Enriched uranium was used as
fissile fuel and depleted uranium as breeding
material. The total power output was 94 MW electrical
at an efficiency of 31.3%.
The major advantage of fast breeder is at high
energies, the structural materials of the reactor do
not absorb neutron, therefore, a wide choice of
constructional materials is possible.
The major difficulty is to remove the large quantities
of heat from the core as the power density is as high
as 430 kW per litre of core volume which is 40 times
greater than Candu type, 13 times greater than BWR
and 200 times greater than gas-cooled reactor.
Therefore, special coolants and special arrangements
are necessary to carry out large quantity of heat.

The Thorium Breeder.

The breeding of thorium is more important than
uranium as India is concerned because India has got
large sources of thorium. The breeding of thorium is
becoming increasingly important than uranium as it
steadily converts to fissionable U233 when exposed to
neutrons ejected from U235 in the reactor. The fissionable
U233 is more attractive fuel than either uranium or
plutonium because it emits 2.31 thermal neutrons on
fission against 2.2 for U235 and 1.94 for U239 which gives
an ample margin for breeding. Since thorium is
efficiently converted into U233 by slow thermal neutrons,
the prospects of breeding a respectable excess of fuel
during power production are excellent.
Such type of breeding reactor is established at Oak
Ridge National Laboratory with 10 MW capacity to find
out breeding potentialities of thorium loaded reactor.

Choice of coolant for fast breeder Reactor

Three coolants have been considered for fast breeder

reactors liquid metal (Na or Nak), helium (He) and
carbon dioxide (C02) Particularly sodium has several
unique advantages over the other coolants as listed
below:
(1) It has good heat transfer properties at high temperature and low
pressure.
(2) It has good emergency cooling characteristics.
(3) It does not react on any of the structural materials used in primary
circuits.
(4) It has very low absorption cross-sectional area.

Very recently, the gas-cooled fast breeder reactor

concept is being promoted by some designers on the
grounds that the sodium has serious disadvantages as
chemical reactivity with water and air, highly induced
radioactivity and very expensive engineering.
The compact design of secondary heat transfer circuit
(heat transfer from sodium to water is required to avoid
the possibility of steam entering into the primary circuit
and reacting with radioactive sodium.

 The helium offers some special advantages as coolant

in fast breeder reactor over sodium as listed below:
(1) The metallurgical and safety problems with the use of
helium as coolant are much less severe.
(2) Helium is chemically inert, does not become radioactive,
does not change the phase and does not degrade the neutron
spectrum, thus leading to high conversion factor and
negligible void reactivity coefficient.
(3) Heat transfer characteristics of helium are as superior as
sodium and it has been found that the surface heat transfer
coefficient of the fuel with helium can be increased
significantly (> 2) by artificial roughening of the fuel rod
surfaces.
(4) The major advantage of helium-cooled fast breeder reactor
is low doubling time (10- 12 years) compared with sodiumcooled reactors (20 years).

The only drawback of helium-cooled fast breeder

reactor is required pressurization (70 to 80 bar) of the
reactor vessel.
It is predicted that helium-cooled fast breeder reactors
will be more promising power generators in future.

Advantages of Breeder Reactor:

1. It does not require moderator.
2. It gives high power density than any other reactor, therefore,
small core is sufficient.
3. High breeding [(k -1) > 1]is possible.
4. The operation of the reactor is not limited by Xe poisoning.
5. High burn-up of fuel is achievable.
6. The parasite absorption of neutrons is low.

Disadvantages of Breeder Reactor:

1. The specific power of the reactor is low.
2. It requires highly enriched (15%) fuel.
3. The control is difficult and expensive as neutron flux is high
and neutron lifetime is short.
4. Safety must be provided against melt-down.
5. The handling of sodium is major problem as it becomes
excessively hot and radioactive
The fast breeder test reactor (FBTR) of40MW thermal and 14MWe
attained its criticality on 18 Oct. 1985 at Kalpakkam. India is the first
developing country and seventh in the world to operate FBR.

ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

SITE SELECTION

Hydro-Electric Power
Plants

Based on the Head of Water Available

1) Low head hydroelectric power
plants
- Below 30 meters
- Francis, Kaplan and
MediumPropeller
head hydroelectric power plants
30 to 100 meters
Francis, Kaplan and Propeller

High head hydroelectric power plants

- above 100 meters
Pelton
Based on the Nature of Load
1) Base load hydroelectric power plants

2) Peak load hydroelectric power plants

Here are the basic components of a

conventional hydropower plant
Dam - Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that holds back
water, creating a large reservoir. Often, this reservoir is used as a
recreational lake
Intake - Gates on the dam open and gravity pulls the water
through the penstock, a pipeline that leads to the turbine. Water
builds up pressure as it flows through this pipe
Turbine - The water strikes and turns the large blades of a turbine,
which is attached to a generator above it by way of a shaft. The
most common type of turbine for hydropower plants is the Francis
Turbine, which looks like a big disc with curved blades. A turbine
can weigh as much as 172 tons and turn at a rate of 90 revolutions
per minute (rpm)
Generators - As the turbine blades turn, so do a series of magnets
inside the generator. Giant magnets rotate past copper coils,
producing alternating current (AC) by moving electrons.
Transformer - The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the
AC and converts it to higher-voltage current
Power lines - Out of every power plant come four wires: the three
phases of power being produced simultaneously plus a neutral or
ground common to all three
Outflow - Used water is carried through pipelines, called
tailraces, and re-enters the river downstream

Optimum Hydroelectric Turbine Type

MAGNETO HYDRO DYNAMIC

POWER GENERATION
(MHD )

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
PRINCIPLE
VARIOUS SYSTEMS
ADVANTAGES
FUTURE PROSPECTS

INTRODUCTION
Magneto
hydrodynamics(MHD)
(magneto
fluid
dynamicsorhydro
magnetics)
is
the
academic disciplinewhich
studies
thedynamicsof
electrically conducting
fluids. Examples of such
fluids
includeplasmas,
liquid
metals,
and
salt water.
The wordmagneto hydro
dynamics (MHD) is derived
frommagneto-meaning
magnetic field, andhydro-

Hannes Alfvn

INTRODUCTION

80 % of total electricity produced in the world

is hydal, while remaining 20% is produced
from nuclear, thermal, solar, geothermal
energy and from magneto hydro dynamic
(MHD) generator.
MHD power generation is a new system of
electric power generation which is said to be
of high efficiency and low pollution. In
advanced countries MHD generators are
widely used but in developing countries like
INDIA, it is still under construction, this
construction work in in progress at TRICHI in
TAMIL NADU, under the joint efforts of BARC
(Bhabha atomic research center), Associated
cement corporation (ACC) and Russian
technologists.
As its name implies, magneto hydro dynamics

INTRODUCTION
An MHD generator is a device for converting
heat energy of a fuel directly into electrical
energy without conventional electric generator.
In this system. An MHD converter system is a
heat engine in which heat taken up at a higher
temperature is partly converted into useful work
and the remainder is rejected at a temperature.
Like all heat engines, the thermal efficiency of
an MHD converter is increased by supplying the
heat at the highest practical temperature and
rejecting it at the lowest practical temperature.

PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER

GENERATION

When an electric conductor moves across a

magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it
which produces an electric current.
This is the principle of the conventional
generator where the conductors consist of
copper strips.
In MHD generator, the solid conductors are
replaced by a gaseous conductor, an ionized
gas. If such a gas is passed at a high velocity
through a powerful magnetic field, a current
is generated and can be extracted by placing
electrodes in suitable position in the stream.
The principle can be explained as follows. An
electric
conductor
moving
through
a
magnetic field experiences a retarding force

PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER

GENERATION

PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER

GENERATION

PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER

GENERATION

This effect is a result of FARADAYS LAWS OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC

INDUCTION.
The induced EMF is given by
Eind = u x B
where u
= velocity of the conductor.
B = magnetic field intensity.
The induced current is given by,
Jind =
C x Eind
where C =
electric conductivity
The retarding force on the conductor is the Lorentz force given by
Find = Jind X B

PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER

GENERATION
The electro magnetic induction principle is not
limited to solid conductors. The movement of a
conducting fluid through a magnetic field can
also generate electrical energy.
When a fluid is used for the energy conversion
technique, it is called MAGNETO HYDRO
DYNAMIC (MHD), energy conversion.
The flow direction is right angles to the
magnetic fields
direction. An electromotive force (or electric
voltage) is induced in the direction at right
angles to both flow and field directions, as

PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER

GENERATION

PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER

GENERATION
The conducting flow fluid is forced between
the plates with a kinetic energy and pressure
differential sufficient to over come the
magnetic induction force Find.
The end view drawing illustrates the
construction of the flow channel.
An ionized gas is employed as the
conducting fluid.
Ionization is produced either by thermal
means I.e. by an elevated temperature or by
seeding with substance like cesium or
potassium vapors which ionizes at relatively
low temperatures.
The atoms of seed element split off
electrons. The presence of the negatively

PRINCIPLES OF MHD POWER

GENERATION

VARIOUS MHD SYSTEMS

The MHD systems are broadly classified into two
types.
OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM
CLOSED CYCLE SYSTEM
Seeded inert gas system
Liquid metal system

OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM

The fuel used maybe oil through an oil tank
or gasified coal through a coal gasification
plant
The fuel (coal, oil or natural gas) is burnt in
the combustor or combustion chamber.
The hot gases from combustor is then
seeded with a small amount of ionized alkali
metal (cesium or potassium) to increase the
electrical conductivity of the gas.
The seed material, generally potassium
carbonate is injected into the combustion
chamber, the potassium is then ionized by
the hot combustion gases at temperature of

OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM

OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM

To attain such high temperatures, the compressed air is

used to burn the coal in the combustion chamber, must be
adequate to at least 1100c. A lower preheat temperature
would be adequate if the air is enriched in oxygen. An
alternative is used to compress oxygen alone for
combustion of fuel, little or no preheating is then required.
The additional cost of oxygen might be balanced by saving
on the preheater.
The hot pressurized working fluid living in the combustor
flows through a convergent divergent nozzle. In passing
through the nozzle, the random motion energy of the
molecules in the hot gas is largely converted into directed,
mass of energy. Thus , the gas emerges from the nozzle
and enters the MHD generator unit at a high velocity.

OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM

The MHD generator is a divergent channel made of a

heat resistant alloy with external water cooling. The
hot gas expands through the rocket like generator
surrounded by powerful magnet. During motion of
the gas the +ve and ve ions move to the electrodes
and constitute an electric current.

The arrangement of the electrode connection is

determined by the need to reduce the losses arising
from the Hall effect. By this effect, the magnetic field
acts on the MHD-generated current and produces a
voltage in flow direction of the working fluid.

CLOSED CYCLE SYSTEM

Two general types of closed cycle
generators are being investigated.

MHD

Electrical conductivity is maintained in the

working fluid by ionization of a seeded
material, as in open cycle system.
A liquid metal provides the conductivity.
The carrier is usually a chemical inert gas, all
through a liquid carrier is been used with a
liquid metal conductor. The working fluid is
circulated in a closed loop and is heated by
the
combustion
gases
using
a
heat
exchanger. Hence the heat sources and the
working fluid are independent. The working

SEEDED INERT GAS SYSTEM

SEEDED INERT GAS SYSTEM

In a closed cycle system the carrier gas operates in
the form of Brayton cycle. In a closed cycle system
the gas is compressed and heat is supplied by the
source, at essentially constant pressure, the
compressed gas then expands in the MHD
generator, and its pressure and temperature fall.
After leaving this generator heat is removed from
the gas by a cooler, this is the heat rejection stage
of the cycle. Finally the gas is recompressed and
returned for reheating.
The complete system has three distinct but
interlocking loops. On the left is the external
heating loop. Coal is gasified and the gas is burnt in
the combustor to provide heat. In the primary heat
exchanger, this heat is transferred to a carrier gas

SEEDED INERT GAS SYSTEM

Because the combustion system is separate
from the working fluid, so also are the ash
and flue gases. Hence the problem of
extracting the seed material from fly ash
does not arise. The fuel gases are used to
preheat the incoming combustion air and
then treated for fly ash and sulfur dioxide
removal, if necessary prior to discharge
through a stack to the atmosphere.
The loop in the center is the MHD loop. The
hot argon gas is seeding with cesium and
resulting working fluid is passed through
the MHD generator at high speed. The dc
power out of MHD generator is converted in
ac by the inverter and is then fed to the

LIQUID METAL SYSTEM

When a liquid metal provides the electrical
conductivity, it is called a liquid metal MHD
system.
An inert gas is a convenient carrier
The carrier gas is pressurized and heated by
passage through a heat exchanger within
combustion chamber. The hot gas is then
incorporated into the liquid metal usually hot
sodium to form the working fluid. The latter then
consists of gas bubbles uniformly dispersed in an
approximately equal volume of liquid sodium.
The working fluid is introduced into the MHD
generator through a nozzle in the usual ways. The
carrier gas then provides the required high direct
velocity of the electrical conductor.

LIQUID METAL SYSTEM

LIQUID METAL SYSTEM

After passage through the generator, the liquid
metal is separated from the carrier gas. Part of the
heat exchanger to produce steam for operating a
turbine generator. Finally the carrier gas is cooled,
compressed and returned to the combustion
chamber for reheating and mixing with the
recovered liquid metal. The working fluid
temperature is usually around 800c as the boiling
point of sodium even under moderate pressure is
below 900c.
At lower operating temp, the other MHD conversion
systems may be advantageous from the material
standpoint, but the maximum thermal efficiency is
lower. A possible compromise might be to use liquid
lithium, with a boiling point near 1300c as the

ADVANTAGES
The conversion efficiency of a MHD system
can be around 50% much higher compared to
the most efficient steam plants. Still higher
efficiencies are expected in future, around 60
65 %, with the improvements in experience
and technology.
Large amount of power is generated.
It has no moving parts, so more reliable.
The closed cycle system produces power, free
of pollution.
It has ability to reach the full power level as
soon as started.
The size if the plant is considerably smaller
than conventional fossil fuel plants.

ADVANTAGES
Although the cost cannot be predicted very
accurately, yet it has been reported that capital
costs of MHD plants will be competitive to
conventional steam plants.
It has been estimated that the overall
operational costs in a plant would be about 20%
less than conventional steam plants.
Direct conversion of heat into electricity permits
to eliminate the turbine (compared with a gas
turbine power plant) or both the boiler and the
turbine (compared with a steam power plant)
elimination reduces losses of energy.
These systems permit better fuel utilization. The
reduced fuel consumption would offer additional
economic and special benefits and would also
lead to conservation of energy resources.
It is possible to use MHD for peak power
generations and emergency service. It has been

FUTURE PROSPECTS
It is estimated that by 2020, almost 70 % of the total
electricity generated in the world will be from MHD
generators.
Research and development is widely being done on
MHD by different countries of the world.
Nations involved:
USA
Former USSR
Japan
India
China
Yugoslavia
Australia
Italy
Poland

THANK YOU ..