Cellular Reproduction and

Model Genetic Organisms

Nicko Yudhistira Kurniawan
(41090008)

Cellular Reproduction and

Model Genetic Organisms
Cells

and Chromosomes
Mitosis
Meiosis
Genetics in the Laboratory: An
Introduction to Some Model Research
Organisms

Dolly
Scientists

at the Roslin Institute near

Edinburgh, Scotland produced Dolly by
fusing an egg from a Blackface ewe (the
egg cell mother) with a cell from the udder
of a Finn Dorset ewe (the genetic mother).

Dolly
The

genetic material in the Blackface

ewes egg had been removed prior to
fusing the egg with the udder cell
Newly endowed egg was stimulated to
divide
It produced an embryo, which was
implanted in the uterus of another
Blackface ewe (the gestational or
surrogate mother).
This embryo grew and developed, and
when the surrogate mothers pregnancy
came to term,dolly was born.

CELLS AND CHROMOSOMES

The Cellular Environment
a. Living cells are made of many different
kinds of molecules. The most abundant
is water. All these sorts of substances
are said to be hydrophilic. The other
substances are said hydrophobic
b. The inside of a cell, called the cytoplasm,
contains both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic substances.

These molecules are formed by chemical

interactions between glycerol,a small organic
compound, and larger organic compounds called
fatty acids.
d. Proteins are the most diverse molecules within cells.
consists of one or more polypeptides, which are
chains of amino acids DNA and RNA
e. Cells are surrounded by a thin layer called a
membrane. Walls and membranes separate the
contents of a cell from the outside world. These
structures are porous to some materials, and they
selectively allow other materials to pass through
them via channels and gates
c.

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Chromosomes: Where Genes are Located

Each

chromosome consists of one doublestranded DNA molecule plus an assortment of

proteins, RNA may also be associated with
chromosomes
The DNA molecules in prokaryotic chromosomes
and plasmids are circular, as are most of the
DNA molecules found in the mitochondrial and
chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells.
The DNA molecules found in the chromosomes
in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells are linear

Cell Division
Prokaryotic

cells divide by fission

eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis and
cytokinesis.
Eukaryotic chromosomes duplicate when
a cells DNA is synthesized,this event,
which precedes mitosis, is characteristic of
the S phase of the cell cycle.

Mitosis

MEIOSIS
Diploid

eukaryotic cells form haploid cells by

meiosis, a process involving one round of
chromosome duplication followed by two cell
divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II).
During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes
pair (synapse), exchange material (cross over),
and separate (disjoin) from each other.
During meiosis II, chromatids disjoin from each
other. In many organisms, the haploid products
of meiosis develop directly into gametes

 In

plants, the products of meiosis divide

mitotically to form haploid gametophytes.
The gametophytic phase of a plants life
cycle alternates with the sporophytic
phase, which is diploid, meiosis occurs in
the sporophyte.

MEIOSIS

Comparison between mitosis and meiosis

GENETICS IN THE LABORATORY: AN

INTRODUCTION TO SOME MODEL
RESEARCH ORGANISMS
Escherichia

coli,a Bacterium
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,Bakers Yeast
Drosophila melanogaster,a Fruit Fly
Arabidopsis thaliana,a Fast-growing Plant

Escherichia coli,a Bacterium

E.

coli has become the microbial

workhorse of geneticists.
For example, the mechanism of DNA
replication and the processes of
transcription and translation were
elucidated by work with this bacterium

 viruses,

called bacteriophage attach to the

cell surface and inject their DNA into the
cell, whereupon that DNA is replicated and
expressed to produce more viruses
E. coli cells and the viruses that infect
them are tiny creatures that can be
cultured in the laboratory to produce tens
of billions of their own kind in a short
period of time

Saccharomyces cerevisiae,Bakers Yeast

Yeast

is a unicellular fungus, although under some

conditions, its cells divide to form long filaments, which
resemble the hyphae of other fungi.
Yeast cells can be cultured on simple media in the
laboratory, and large numbers of cells can be obtained
from a single mother cell in just a few days. In
addition, mutant strains with different growth
characteristics can be readily isolated.

Drosophila melanogaster,a Fruit Fly

The

male gametes or microspores are produced

from microspore mother cells by meiosis in
anthers, which are atop the stamens within
Arabidopsis flowers
Each microspore then undergoes mitosis to
produce a mature pollen grain, which contains
two generative or sperm cells located within a
vegetative cell,each of these cells contains a
haploid nucleus

Arabidopsis thaliana,a Fast-growing Plant

The

female gametes, or megaspores, are

produced from megaspore mother cells by
meiosis in the ovary, which is located ithin the
pistil at the center of the flower
Meiosis in this female tissue produces four cells;
owever, three subsequently degenerate, leaving
only one functional megaspore. The haploid
nucleus in each megaspore undergoes three
mitotic divisions to produce an immature embryo
sac containing eight haploid nuclei.

 Cytokinesis

then occurs, creating three

antipodal cells, two synergid cells, and an
egg cell. Two polar nuclei remain in the
large central cell of the embryo sac. These
polar nuclei subsequently fuse to form a
diploid secondary endosperm nucleus,
and the three antipodal cells degenerate.

 When

a mature pollen grain lands on the stigma

atop the
pistil, a pollen tube grows down through the
style to an egg cell within the ovary. In plants,
fertilization involves two events. (1)
The diploid zygote, which will grow into an
embryo, is formed when one sperm cell from the
pollen tube fuses with the egg cell of the female
gametophyte. (2) The triploid endosperm