Introduction and

overview
Sedimentology
Sediments
weathering
Basins
Transport
methodology

Sedimentology
The description, classification, origin and interpretation
of sediments and sedimentary rocks

Sources of Sediments
Rocks
Sediments
Biosphere

Source
Rocks
Sediment
Biota

erosion

transport

Media
Wind Water Ice

sedimentation
Diagenesis

Products
Sedimentary
Rocks

Processes
Mechanical Chemical Biochemical Biological

Source
Rocks
Sediment
Biota

erosion

transport

sedimentation

Products
Sediments
Sedimentary
Rocks

Media
Wind Water Ice
PROCESSES
Mechanical Chemical Biochemical Biological

WEATHERING
Physical (mechanical) weathering

Rocks are physically transformed into smaller

fragments by

ice expansion during freeze/thaw cycles

expansion of minerals when heated and cooled
abrasion by water, ice or sand
expansion of plant roots

WEATHERING
Physical (mechanical) weathering

Rocks are physically transformed into smaller

fragments by

ice expansion during freeze/thaw cycles

expansion of minerals when heated and cooled
abrasion by water, ice or sand
expansion of plant roots

Onion skin weathering (WadiRahabah, Ras Al Khaimah, UAE)

Chemical weathering
Oxidation of cations (mainly Fe & Mn) liberated by
alteration
Fe2+ in minerals + O2 oxidize to Fe2O3 (hematite)
FeO.OH (goethite), or Fe(OH)3.nH2O
Dissolution: mineral or rock dissolve by action of water
Carbonate minerals dissolved by rain/ground water
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca2+ + 2HCO3 dissolution of rocks occurs along surface and rock
fractures resulting in karst features
Alteration: is common in silicates, e.g. feldspar:
KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ + H2O = Al2Si2O5(OH)2 + 2K++
4SiO2
which produces kaolinite clay and ions in
solution

Biochemical weathering
Effect of microorganisms in transforming cations

from the minerals to biosphere or water system in

association with chemical weathering

Biological weathering
Effects of animal grazing

Factor controlling the sedimentary

record
Climate
Topography
Lithology
Vegetation cover
Tectonics

Factor controlling the sedimentary

record
Climate
Topography
Lithology
Vegetation cover
Tectonics

Climate influence on weathering & soil formation

Arid climate: little precipitation

soil is very thin and immature, has soluble
elements and often caliche layers
Rocks exposed above the soil often coated by
thin layer of Mn or Fe oxides (desert varnish)
wind-blown sand mechanically abrades
exposed rocks producing flat faces (ventifacts)

ventifacts

desert varnish

Climate influence on weathering & soil formation

Tropical humid climate: high rainfall

very thick, mature soil (100 m +)
top layer rich in residual Al(OH)3, called bauxite
(mined for aluminum)
Soluble elements are removed from soil, thus soil is
not fertile or useful for agriculture

tropical soil

bauxite

Plate tectonics has affected

the land-searelationship
and consequently climate

Sediment particles
-Clastic (transported fragments) Detritus Terrigenous
-nonclastic (formed or deposited insitu) intrabasinal

Sediment transportation

Sediment size versus transport medium:

Wind mainly transports sand-sized or smaller particles
Rivers, tides and waves usually transport and deposit
sand, but under high energy conditions, can transport
gravel
Glaciers transport all sizes of particles at the same time,
and deposit them together, producing very poorly sorted
sediment
Gravity-triggered flows transport all sizes of particles at
the same time, and deposit them together (landslides) or
in separate layers (gravity flows)

eruption of Etna volcano

November 2003

Dust storm in Arabian

Gulf May 2004 (NASA)

Scree of Khumbu glacier

on base of Mt. Everest

Patterns of Sediment
transport

bed load:
traction and collision
rolling&slidingalong
bottom

saltation:
bounce and float

suspended load:
mud and some sand
carried suspended in
water by small
turbulent gusts of
water

Types of currents

laminar currents:
parallel flow lines are parallel, little mixing between
adjacent areas; moderate energy
examples: debris flows and mudflows which are
mixtures of mud, sand, pebbles, and large boulders

turbulent currents:
swirling flow lines aid mixing between adjacent layers,
variable velocity; high energy!
characteristic of rivers, waves, tides, other marine
currents and turbidity currents (submarine avalanches)

Stocks Law: Ws=g d2/18

Ws= settling velocity
=density difference between fluid and grain, g= gravity acceleration
d= grain diameter, =fluid viscosity

Why study sedimentary rocks?

to understand their formation
to reconstruct palaeo-geography / -environments
ancient distribution of land and sea, reefs, glaciers
ancient climate conditions

to reconstruct evolution of life

sedimentary record rich in fossils

Next page: fossil traces of asteroidea

submarine turbidity current

prograding at high speed

Types of currents

laminar currents:
parallel flow lines are parallel, little mixing between
adjacent areas
examples: debris flows and mudflows which are
mixtures of mud, sand, pebbles, and large boulders

turbulent currents:
swirling flow lines aid mixing between adjacent layers,
variable velocity

snow avalanche is equivalent

to submarine turbidity current

Methodology

field methods: mapping, graphical logs and correlation

Methodology

field methods: analysis of sedimentary structures,

unconformities; sampling of rocks and fossils

Methodology

laboratory techniques: cutting, polishing and thin

sectioning of samples

Methodology

laboratory techniques: SEM analysis (scanning

electron microscopy) for study of clay minerals,
cements and microfossils

SEM images of diatoms (left)

and dolomite crystals (above)

Methodology

laboratory techniques: sediment flow simulations

Methodology

Digital Analyses
Basin modeling
Simulation of sedimentary systems (Phil, Strata)
Digital image analysis