Lecture 8: Virtue and

The Happy Life

Dr. Ann T. Orlando

30 October 2008

Outline
Augustine

The Happy Life

Virtue

Aquinas

on virtue
Calvin on Virtue
John Stuart Mill
Spe Salvi

Background: Virtue

Plato

Happiness is the perfect state, not sullied by material concerns

The virtues are those qualities which make us excellent and perfected
Human soul is a reflection of the world-soul
Not clear if virtues can be learned (acquired) or are a gift of God

Aristotle

Happiness is a self-sufficient active individual

Virtue is mean between two extremes
Emphasis on practical reasoning
Virtues can be learned, but to do so must be practiced as habits

Background: Hellenistic Philosophy

Stoics

Epicureans

Happiness is living according to nature (God is nature; Logos, Providence)

Virtue is conformity to accepting circumstances of nature
Passions are to be suppressed (indifference)
Nature is found in Providential law
Epictitus, Virtue and the Happy Life
Happiness is found in pleasant life of peaceful tranquility
Gods are not concerned with us; no immortality of soul
Virtues as means to a pleasant life
Epicurus philosophical starting point, How can there be evil and a good omnipotent
God

Neoplatonists

Happiness is contemplation of the One

Virtues change and improve as one progresses closer to contemplation of the One

Early Christianity and Virtue

Virtue not Biblical

Greek philosophical concept of ethics

Biblical ethics is law and the right path

Early Greek theologians, especially Clement of

Alexandria, introduce the idea of virtue into Christian
ethics
But Tertullian in What has Athens to do with Jerusalem
was specifically targeting the use of virtue as a basis for
ethics in Christianity
Stoicism and Neoplatonism provides philosophical
mechanism for combination of virtue and Christian
ethics

Augustine and Happiness

How

to be happy is the driving force in many

of Augustines works

Arguably Confessions is at root his personal

search for happiness
The City of God arguably is at root the corporate
search for happiness

On The Happy (Blessed) Life

The Happiness of Hope

Written in 386, shortly after his conversion while at
Cassiciacum

The soul is happy only in the comprehensive

understanding of Truth

Before Baptism

Truth is found only in the Trinity

Monica plays crucial role,

As the one who intuitively understands that life in God is the

happy life
As model for Catholic spirituality

On Free Choice of the Will

Dialog with friend (and future bishop) Evodius

Book I Outline

Began Book I in Rome in 387, completed in North Africa in 388

Completed Books II and III around 395
Where does evil come from
Suffering and sin
Civil and eternal law

Book II Outline

Why did God give us free will if we use it to choose sin?

That we can know there is a God, immutable and eternal truth, who is Good

Argued by analogy

Free choice is a good

Happy life is to choose the good, highest good for man on earth in virtue
Sin is the turning away from God (opposite of virtue)

Book III Outline

If God knows all, how can we have free will?

Our free choice guaranteed because it si a gift of God who does know all
Difference between ignorance and sin
Through Adams sin, both ignorance and sin entered

Augustine and Virtue

In Book II, Augustine gives a definition of virtue, right reason whereby life is
lived rightly

In later thought, Augustine begins to shift to love as the primary, indeed only,
virtue

Focus on cardinal virtues

Especially justice

Love becomes the only measure of morality (right action) Love and do what you will
Tractates on Epistle of St. John, Homily VII
Virtue consists in nothing else but in loving what is worthy of love; it is prudence to
choose this, fortitude to be turned from it by no obstacle, temperance to be enticed by
no allurements, and justice to be diverted by no pride[ good or bad love makes
good or bad conduct.
[1] Augustine, Letter 155 to Macedonius

The best brief description of virtue is the ordering of love City of God 15.22

City of God XIX.1-8

Starts with how to be happy

An examination, based on Varro (116-27 BC, friend
of Cicero, wrote extensively on philosophy), of
different philosophical approaches to happiness,
virtue, evil
That the happy life is a social life
The calamity of our ignorance

How a human judge is different form God the all-knowing

judge

Friendship the highest good on earth

But can only be imperfectly lived on earth

Aquinas and Happiness

Ia

IIae begins with a discussion of happiness

Q1 a1-8 reconciling Aristotle and Augustine
on human purpose and happiness
Q3 what is happiness

The role of virtue in human happiness

Happiness as the vision of God

Aquinas on Virtue
ST Ia IIae Q55-67

Q55 Definition of virtue

Virtue as a good habit (a1-3)

Augustines definition of virtue a4

Q62 a2 Are cardinal (acquired virtues) different from infused (theological) virtues?

Distinguish between virtues associated with our nature (cardinla virtues) and virtues
beyond our nature (theological virtues)
Distinguish between love (amor) and charity (caritas)

Q64 Mean of virtues

The end of virtue as an operative habit

Theological virtues as infused, different from acquired virtues

Cardinal virtues have a mean

Theological virtues do not have a mean

Q 65 Connection among virtues

a2 The ways in which the acquired (cardinal) virtues are not connected to charity as the
natural end fo man, and the way in which they are connected to charity as the eternal
end of man
a3 relationship between infused cardinal virtues and charity

Reformation Suspicion of Scholastic

Philosophy
Return

to Scripture without philosophical

intermediaries
Deeply question whether virtues can be
acquired
Fall precludes any sense of happiness on
earth

Calvin and Happiness

Man

without grace does live in a degenerate

and deformed state
In this life, true happiness is not possible and
should not be sought
The Fall precludes man being able to work
toward his own happiness

Calvin

Institutes 3.6
Reaction against philosophy
Points to sermons of Fathers
Importance of Bible, especially Decalogue, as way of
morality
The paramount importance of righteousness, not
virtue

Righteousness as conformity to will of God

Righteousness as rule for conduct

Where is Augustine in this? Why does he seem to

have no significance for Calvins arguments?

Modernity: Happiness and Virtue

Without Religion

Enlightenment belief in human progress

Ethics based on social contract

Happiness within mans grasp on earth

Individuals and society can created their own happiness
Life, Liberty, Pursuit of Happiness
Rational Individuals and Societies can figure out for
themselves what is right

Voltaire Philosophical Dictionary, Virtue,

http://history.hanover.edu/texts/voltaire/volvirt.html

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

Father, James Mill, was an historian and student of Jeremy

Bentham

Elected to House of Commons in 1865 as a liberal

John raised without any religious instruction

Was instructed in classical Greek and Roman literature
Studied in France and became part of French liberal philosophical
scene
Champion of womens rights

Philosophical works include

Logic and language

Scientific method
Psychology
Politics
Moral philosophy of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism

Based on work by Jeremy Bentham to find a new basis for

morality after the overthrow of religion
Utility is equated with Epicurean happiness

Maximize pleasure for greatest numbers, minimize pain

Actions should be governed by The Greatest Happiness as their
ends

Read Chapters 1, 2 of Utilitarianism

What is the significance of the classical Christian (Augustine)

tradition
Compare structure and arguments with City of God XIX. However
do not assume that Mill read it
Available at
http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/m/mill/john_stuart/m645u/util02.html

Modern Return to Aristotle

G.E.M.

Anscombe, Modern Moral

Philosophy 1958 available at
http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/cmt
/mmp.html
Student of Wittgenstein
Convert to Catholicism
Set the path for MacIntyre

A Return to Augustine
Spe

Salvi (Para 10-34)

Where is the happy life found
Is virtue the end or the way
Can man save himself
What is role of human freedom
Available at
http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/en
cyclicals/documents/hf_benxvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html

Bonus: Darrin McMahon

From

the happiness of virtue to the virtue of

happiness: 400 B.C.-A.D. 1780 Daedelus,
133:2, pp 5 13 (Mar 22, 2004)
Traces the change in the relationship
between virtue and happiness in the
Enlightenment

Assignments

Augustine

Aquinas

On Free Choice of the Will Book II

City of God, XIX.1-8
ST Ia IIae Q1, Q3
St Ia IIae Q55, Q62-65

Calvin, Institutes 3.6

Voltaire Philosophical Dictionary, Virtue,
http://history.hanover.edu/texts/voltaire/volvirt.html
John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism, Ch 1, 3,
http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/m/mill/john_stuart/m645u/util02.html
G.E.M. Anscombe, Modern Moral Philosophy 1958 available at
http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/cmt/mmp.html (optional)
Benedict XVI, Spe Salvi Para 10-34 Available at
http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_benxvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html