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Introduction To Semiconductors
Introduction To Semiconductors
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS
Electronic
TOPICS
Atomic
Structure
Insulator, Semiconductor, Conductor
Current in semiconductors
The p-n junction
The structure of the diode
Biasing a Diode
Diode I-V characteristic
Diode Models
Testing a Diode
Atomic Structure
I
ATOM???
The smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of
that element.
Consists of the protons and neutrons
that make up the nucleus (core) at the center
and electrons that orbit about the nucleus.
The nucleus carries almost the total mass of
the atom.
Neutrons are neutral and carry no charge.
Protons carry positive charges.
The electrons carry negative charges.
The number of protons = the number of electrons
in an atom, which makes it electrically neutral or
balanced.
Atomic Number
N e 2n
Valence
electron
shells
n = number of shell
Nucleus
orbiting
electrons
Gallium
electrons
Total:
29
Shells or
electrons
orbital
n = the shell number paths
Valence Shell
N
M
29 p
29 n
Valence
shell
Valence
electron
QUIZ #1
________is the smallest particle of an element that
retains the characteristics of that element.
An atom consists of the ___and ______
that make up the nucleus (core) at the center
and electrons that orbit about the nucleus.
The nucleus carries almost the total mass of
the atom.
Neutrons are neutral and carry __________.
Protons carry______________.
The electrons carry ________________.
2. An atom consists of
A)
Semiconductor
Material that is between conductor and insulator in its
ability to conduct electrical current.
Play a significant role in the development of modern
electronic device such as diodes, transistors, and integrated
circuits.
Class of semiconductor :
- Single-crystal : Ge, Si & C
- Compound - : GaAs, CdS & GaAsP - - - - Si
- Semiconductor atoms
G
e
- -
- - - -
Insulator
Material that does not conduct
electrical current under normal
conditions.
Valence electrons are tightly bound
to the atoms very few free
electrons.
Most good insulators are
compounds rather than single-elemet
materials.
Example : rubber, plastics, glass,
Conductor
Material that easily conducts electrical
current.
Energy Bands
Valence shell of an atom represent a band of
energy level that contains valence electrons.
When an electron have enough additional
energy, it can leave the valence shell to become
a free electron and exist in conduction band.
The energy gap is the difference between the
valence band and conduction band. This is the
amount of energy that a valence electron must
have to jump form valence band to conduction
band.
In conduction band, electron is free to move
throughout the material and is not tied to any
atom.
Energy
Energy
Conduction band
Energy gap
E4 =
1.8eV
E3 =
E20.7eV
E1
E = energy
level
Conductio
n band
Valence
band
Second band
(shell 2)
Valence band
First band
(shell 1)
Nucleu
s
Energy Level
Valence
electrons
Core (+1
Valence
electrons
Core (+4)
Silicon atom
Copper atom
Core of Si atom has a net charge of +4 (14 protons 10 electrons) and core Cu
has a net charge of +1 (29 protons 28 electrons).
The core includes everything except the valence electron.
A valence electron in Si atom feels an attractive force of +4 compared to Cu atom
which feels an attractive force of +1.
The distance from its nucleus of Coppers valence electron (in 4th shell) > silicons
valence electron (in 3rd shell).
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonding is the method
by which atoms complete their
valence shells by sharing
valence electrons.
--
+
-
(a)
(b)
PN Junction
Few terms and processes that are frequently referred to in p-n junction theory
Terms/Processes
Definitions
Doping
N-type impurities
(donor)
P-type impurities
(acceptors)
Diffusion current
Definitions
the process of losing or gaining a valence electron. If a neutral
atom loses a valence electron, it is no longer neutral and is
called a positive ion. On the other hand, if a neutral atom gains
a valence electron, it is called a negative ion.
results when there is a non-uniform concentration of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) in the semiconductor; that is, if
there is a higher density of carriers in one region and lower
density in another, carriers start migrating from the region of
higher density to the region with lower density until a fairly
uniform concentration is established in the semiconductor. The
flow of these charge carriers during migration constitutes a
current flow called diffusion current, and the carriers are said
to diffuse from one region to another.
Extrinsic materials
A
N-type semiconductor
An n-type semiconductor is produced when the intrinsic
semiconductor is doped with n-type impurity atoms that have five
valence electrons (pentavalent), such as arsenic (As), antimony (Sb),
Bismuth (B) and phosphorus (P). Pentavalent atom is called a donor
atom.
Energy
-
Si
Si
Si
Conduction band
Si
Excess
covalent
bond
electron
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Electrons
(majority carriers)
Valence band
Holes
(minority carriers)
Energy diagram (n-type
semiconductor)
P-type Semiconductor
A p-type semiconductor is produced when the intrinsic semiconductor
is doped with p-type impurity atoms that have three valance electrons
(trivalent), such as aluminum, boron, and gallium. Trivalent atom is
referred to as an acceptor atom.
-
Si
Si
Conduction band
Si
Energy
Covalent
bond
- hole
Si
Valence band
Electrons
(minority carriers)
Holes
(majority carriers)
Energy diagram (p-type
semiconductor)
What
will happen if we
combine p-type
semiconductor and n-type
semiconductor?
P type
semiconductor
Si crystal doped
with trivalent
atoms such Boron,
Antimony, etc.
Has majority of
holes.
N type
semiconductor
Si crystal doped
with pentavalent
such as
Phosporous,Atseni
c,etc.
Has majority of
electron.
Formation of PN-junction
If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type and
other part is p-type, a p-n junction forms at the boundary
between the two region and a diode is created
When the p-n junction is formed n region loses electron (diffuse across
junction) and creates a layer of positive charges near the junction.
As electron moves across the junction, p region loses hole as the electron
and holes combine. This create a layer of negative charges near the
junction. These two layers form the depletion region.
Depletion refer to region near the p-n junction is depleted of charge carrier
(electrons and holes) due to diffusion across junction.
For every free electron that diffuse across the junction and combines with a
hole, a positive charge is created in p region, forming a barrier potential. This
action continues until the voltage of the barrier prevent further diffusion.
+4
+4
+4
+4
+3
+4
+4
+4
Total (+) = 19
Total (-) = 20
Net charge =
-1
+5
+4
N-type
Junction
P-type
Total (+) = 21
Total (-) = 20
Net charge =
+1
Bias
Bias is a potential applied to p-n junction to obtain certain operating
conditions.
This potential is used to control the width of the depletion layer.
By controlling the width of the depletion layer, we are able to control the
resistance
of the p-n junction and thus the amount of current that can pass
through the
Table 1.3: The relationship between the width of depletion layer and the junction
device.
current
Junction Resistance
Junction Current
Minimum
Minimum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Minimum
Forward Bias
Forward bias is a potential used to reduce the resistance of p-n junction.
A forward-biased p-n junction has minimum depletion layer width and
junction
resistance.
There are two requirements to produce forward bias:
- The positive side of voltage source (denoted as bias voltage) is
connected
to the p-type material of the p-n junction semiconductor and the
negative
side is connected to the n-type material.
- Bias voltage must be greater than the barrier potential. Barrier
potensial is an
energy hill that is created by the electric field between the positive
and
As the electrons flow out of the p region through the external connection and
to the positive side of the bias-voltage source, they leave holes behind in the p
region; at the same time, these electrons become conduction electrons in the
metal conductor.
There is a continuous availability of holes effectively moving toward the p-n
junction to combine with the continuous stream of electrons as they come
across the junction into the p region.
Reverse Bias
Reverse bias is a potential that essentially prevents current through
the diode.
A reverse-biased p-n junction has maximum depletion layer width and
junction
resistance.
There are two requirements to produce forward bias:
- The positive side of voltage source (denoted as bias voltage) is
connected
to the n-type material of the p-n junction semiconductor and the
negative
side is connected to the p-type material.
- The depletion region is much wider than in forward bias.
The positive side of the bias-voltage source pulls the free electrons (the
majority carriers in n-type material) away from the p-n junction because unlike
charges attract.
As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source, additional
positive
ions are created. This results in a widening of the depletion region and
a depletion of majority carriers.
In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter as
valence
electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region
where they
create additional negative ions. This results in a widening of the
depletion
region and depletion of majority carriers.
The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very short
time after
Reverse Current
There is the extremely small current exists in reverse bias after the
transition
hill and combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence
electrons
and flow toward the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole
current.
The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level than the
Reverse Breakdown
Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be neglected.
However, if the
external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value called the
breakdown
voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase.
The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are pushed
toward
hill and combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence
electrons
and flow toward the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole
current.
The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level than the
Diodes
Introduction
A diode is a two-electrode (two-terminal)
device that acts as an one-way
conductor.
VD
Anode (A)
Cathode (K)
ID
VF
VBias
IF
VD
+
VBias
I0
VA
VA
VA
IF = 0
IF > 0
VF
VK
IF
VF = 0
VK
ON
VF < 0
VK
OFF
This model is adequate for most troubleshooting when you are trying to determine
wheter the diode is working properly.
IF
Forward
operating
region
VR
II
III
IV
Reverse
operating
region
IR
Fig.1.27: I-V characteristics of the ideal
diode
VF
Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are neglected, the
diode is assumed to have a zero voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated
by the portion of the curve on the positive vertical axis (Fig.1-27).
VF 0 V
The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting resistor using
Ohms law:
VBias
IF
RLimit
(1-1)
Since the reverse current is neglected, its value is assumed to be zero, as indicated in
Fig.1-27 by the portion of the curve on the negative horizontal axis.
I R 0V
The reserve voltage equals the bias
voltage.
VR VBias
Example 1-1:
For the diode circuits in Fig. 1.28 (a) and (c), determine if the diode is ON or OFF. Find
VR, IR, VF, and IF.
+12 V
+12 V
IR
+
VR
R = 2K
IR
+
VR
R = 2K
IF
IF
VF
IR
IR
VR
R = 2K
V2
VF
IF
VF
V2
V2
(a)
R = 2K
V2
VR
IF
VF
+12 V
V1
V1
+12 V
V1
(b)
(c)
Figure
1.28
V1
(d)
Since the barrier potential is included and the forward dynamic resistance are
neglected, the diode is assumed to have a voltage across it when forward-biased, as
indicated by the portion of the curve to the right of the origin (Fig.1-29(c)).
VF 0.7 V
The forward current is determined as follows by first applying Kirchoffs
voltage law:
VBias VF
IF
RLimit
(1-2)
The diode is assumed to have zero reverse current, as indicated by the portion of
the curve on the negative horizontal axis.
IR 0 A
VR VBias
This model is useful to troubleshoot in lower-voltage circuits and to design the basic
diode circuits.
VF 0.7 V I F rd'
VBias 0.7 V
IF
RLimit rd'
(1-3)
(1-4)
Exercise 1.1:
(a)Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the
diode in Fig.1.31(a) for each of the diode models. Also find the
voltage across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume r d =
10 at the determined value of forward current.
(b)Determine the reverse voltage and reverse current for the
diode in Fig.1.31(b) for each of the diode models. Also find the
voltage across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume I R =
RLimit
RLimit
1A.
VBias
IF
2k
VBias
10 V
IF
2k
10 V