1 Introduction

INTRODUCTION
GRAPHICS
LANGUAGE
Composition of Graphic Language

Graphic language in engineering application use
lines to represent the surfaces,
surfaces edges and contours
of objects.
The language is known as drawing
drawing or drafting
drafting .
A drawing can be done using freehand,
freehand instruments
or computer methods.
Freehand drawing (SKETCHING)

The lines are sketched without using instruments other
than pencils and erasers.
Example
Instrument drawing
Instruments are used to draw straight lines, circles, and
curves concisely and accurately. Thus, the drawings are
usually made to scale.
Example
Computer drawing
The drawings are usually made by commercial software
such as AutoCAD, solid works etc.
Example
Engineering
Drawing
Elements of Engineering Drawing

Engineering drawing are made up of graphics language
and word language.
language
Graphics
language
Describe a shape
(mainly).
Word
language
Describe size, location and
specification of the object.
Basic Knowledge for Drafting
Word
language
Graphics
language
Line
types
Projection
method
Geometric
construction
Lettering
PROJECTION
METHOD
10
What is projection?
It is a process by which images are formed
by rays of light or imaginary lines taken in a
particular direction from an object to a
picture plane.
11
PROJECTION METHOD
Perspective
Oblique
Parallel
Orthographic
Axonometric (Isometric)
Multiview
12
PROJECTION THEORY
The projection theory is used to graphically represent
3-D objects on 2-D media (paper, computer screen).
The projection theory is based on two variables:

1) Line of sight
2) Plane of projection
13
Line of sight
is an imaginary ray of light between an
observers eye and an object.

There are 2 types of LOS : parallel and converge
Parallel projection
Perspective projection
Line of sight
Line of sight
14
Plane of projection is an imaginary flat plane which

the image is created.
The image is produced by connecting the points where
the LOS pierce the projection plane.
Parallel projection
Perspective projection
Plane of projection
Plane of projection
15
Disadvantage of
Perspective Projection
Perspective projection is not
used by engineer for manufacturing of parts, because
1) It is difficult to create.
2) It does not reveal exact
shape and size.
Width is distorted
16
What is a Point?????
A point represents a location in space.
It is a dimensionless geometrical entity which has

simply position but no magnitude.
A point is usually represented by a dot or a very

small circle.
Projections of points have no practical significance.

However, it serves the basis for projections of lines,
projections of planes and projections of solids.
Reference Planes
Vertical plane(VP)
Horizontal plane(HP)
A
B
ion
t
a
v
Ele
First angle
VP
Third angle
HP
n
Pla
Auxiliary Plane
Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP)

Auxiliary Vertical Plane (AVP)
19
PROJECTIONS OF POINTS
POSITIONS OF A POINT
The distances of a point from the HP and the VP are

necessary to determine its position in space.
We may use parameters (h, d) to indicate the position
of the point in space:
h indicates the height of the point above/below
the HP
d indicates the distance of the point in front
of/behind the VP.
These parameters may be suffixed by a small alphabet
for that point. For example, to indicate the point P in
space, parameters (hp, dp) may be used.
The space-coordinates hp and

dp may be prefixed by a (+) or
() sign to indicate whether the
point is above the HP/in front
of the VP or below the
HP/behind the VP as shown.
21
22
The positions of a point may be as follows:
1. A point in the first quadrant, i.e., above the HP and in front of the VP
(e.g., Point A)
2. A point in the second quadrant, i.e., above the HP and behind the VP
(e.g., Point B)
3. A point in the third quadrant, i.e., below the HP and behind the VP
(e.g., Point C)
4. A point in the fourth quadrant, i.e., below the HP and in front of the
VP (e.g. Point D)
5. A point in the VP and above the HP (e.g. Point E)
6. A point in the VP and below the HP (e.g. Point F)
7. A point in the HP and in front of the VP (e.g. Point G)
8. A point in the HP and behind the VP (e.g. Point H)
9. A point in both the RPs (e.g. Point I )
23
NOTATION SYSTEM
The notations to be followed are as given:
1. The TV of a point P shall be indicated by p
2. The FV of a point P shall be indicated by p
3. The SV of a point P shall be indicated by p
24
PROJECTIONS OF POINTS: SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
A Point in the First Quadrant
Example 1 Draw the projections of the point A, which is 50 mm above the HP

and 30 mm front of the VP.
25
Solution Given,
ha = +50,
da = +30
As ha and da both are (+), the point A is in the first quadrant. Therefore, FV of
the point will be seen above XY at a distance of 50 mm and TV will be seen
below XY at a distance of 30 mm.
26
Orthographic
Projection
27
MEANING
Orthographic projection is a parallel projection technique
in which the parallel lines of sight are perpendicular to the
projection plane
Object views from top
1 5
3 4
5
3
4
Projection plane
28
ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW
Orthographic view depends on relative position of the object
to the line of sight.
Rotate
Two dimensions of an
object is shown.
Tilt
More than one view is needed

to represent the object.
Multiview drawing
Three dimensions of an object is shown.
Axonometric drawing
29
ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW
NOTES
Orthographic projection technique can produce either
1. Multiview drawing
that each view show an object in two dimensions.
2. Axonometric drawing
that show all three dimensions of an object in one view.
Both drawing types are used in technical drawing for
communication.
30
Axonometric (Isometric) Drawing

Advantage
Easy to understand
Disadvantage
Shape and angle distortion
Example
Distortions of shape and size in isometric drawing
Circular hole
becomes ellipse.
Right angle becomes obtuse angle.

31
Multiview Drawing
Advantage
It represents accurate shape and size.
Disadvantage Require practice in writing and reading.

Example
Multiviews drawing (2-view drawing)
32
Drawing Standard
Introduction
Standards are set of rules that govern how technical
drawings are represented.
Drawing standards are used so that drawings convey

the same meaning to everyone who reads them.
Standard Code
Country
Code
Full name
INDIA
I.S.
INDIAN STANDARD
USA
ANSI
American National Standard Institute
UK
BS
British Standard
Germany
DIN
ISO
Deutsches Institut fr Normung

International Standards Organization
Drawing Sheet
Trimmed paper of
a size A0 ~ A4.
Standard sheet size
(ISO- A Series)
A4
A3
A2
A1
A0
210 x 297
297 x 420
420 x 594
594 x 841
841 x 1189
(Dimensions in millimeters)
A4
A3
A2
A1
A0
Drawing Scales
Length, size
Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element

of an object shown in the drawing to the real linear
dimension of the same element of the object.
Size in drawing
Actual size
Drawing Scales
Designation of a scale consists of the word SCALE
followed by the indication of its ratio, as follow
SCALE 1:1
for full size
SCALE X:1 for enlargement scales (X > 1)

SCALE 1:X for reduction scales
(X > 1)
Dimension numbers shown in the drawing are correspond

to true size of the object and they are independent of
the scale used in creating that drawing.
38
Basic Line Types

Types of Lines
Appearance
Name according
to application
Continuous thick line
Visible line
Continuous thin line
Dimension line
Extension line
Leader line
Dash thick line
Hidden line
Chain thin line
Center line
NOTE : We will learn other types of line in later chapters.
39
Thickness of lines
Ratio of thick to thin line -2:1
Various line thickness used-0.18, 0.25,
0.35. 0.5, 0.7, 1,1.4 and 2(all are in mm)
40
Meaning of Lines
Visible lines represent features that can be seen in the
current view
Hidden lines represent features that can not be seen in
the current view
Center line
represents symmetry, path of motion, centers

of circles, axis of axisymmetrical parts
Dimension and Extension lines indicate the sizes and

location of features on a drawing
41
Example : Line conventions in engineering drawing
Traditional
Drawing Tools
DRAWING TOOLS
DRAWING TOOLS
1. T-Square
2. Triangles
45
DRAWING TOOLS
2H or HB for thick line

4H for thin line
3. Adhesive Tape
4. Pencils
46
DRAWING TOOLS
5. Compass
47
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST
UVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLM
NOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEF
Lettering
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST
UVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLM
NOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEF
Text on Drawings
Text on engineering drawing is used :
To communicate nongraphic information.
As a substitute for graphic information, in those instance
where text can communicate the needed information
more clearly and quickly.
Thus, it must be written with
Legibility
- shape
- space between letters and words
Uniformity
- size
- line thickness
Example
Placement of the text on drawing

Dimension & Notes
Notes
Title Block
Lettering Standard
ANSI Standard
This course
Use a Gothic text style,
Use only a vertical Gothic
either inclined or vertical.
text style.
Use all capital letters.
Use both capital and

lower-case letters.
Use 3 mm for most
Same. For letters in title
text height.
block it is recommend to use

5~8 mm text height
Space between lines
N/A.
of text is at least 1/3
Follows ANSI rule.
of text height.
Basic Strokes
Straight
Slanted
Horizontal
Curved
Examples : Application of basic stroke

I letter
A letter 1
B letter 1
3
3
2
Upper-caseStrokes
letters & Sequence
Numerals
Suggested
Straight line
letters
Curved line
letters
Curved line
letters &
Numerals
Lower-case
letters
Suggested
Strokes
Sequence
The text s body height is about 2/3 the height of a capital

letter.
Stroke Sequence
I
55
Stroke Sequence
V
56
Stroke Sequence
Z
M
K
57
Stroke Sequence
O
58
Stroke Sequence
U
P
B
59
Stroke Sequence
5
60
Stroke Sequence
S
61
Stroke Sequence
l
62
Stroke Sequence
w
x
k
63
Stroke Sequence
y
f
t
64
Stroke Sequence
o
a
b
65
Stroke Sequence
n
m
h
66
Example : Good and Poor Lettering

GOOD
Not uniform in style.
Not uniform in height.
Not uniformly vertical or inclined.
Not uniform in thickness of stroke.
Area between letters not uniform.
Area between words not uniform.
Sentence Composition
Leave the space between words equal to the space
requires for writing a letter O.
Example
ALL ODIMENSIONS OARE OIN

MILLIMETERS OUNLESS
OTHERWISE O SPECIFIED.
Freehand
Sketching
Straight Line
1. Hold the pencil naturally.
2. Spot the beginning and end points.
3. Swing the pencil back and forth between the points, barely
touching the paper until the direction is clearly established.
4. Draw the line firmly with a free and easy wrist-and-arm
motion
Horizontal line
Vertical line
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Nearly vertical
inclined line
Nearly horizontal
inclined line
Small Circle
Method 1 : Starting with a square
1. Lightly sketching the square and marking the mid-points.
2. Draw light diagonals and mark the estimated radius.
3. Draw the circle through the eight points.
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Small Circle
Method 2 : Starting with center line
1. Lightly draw a center line.
2. Add light radial lines and mark the estimated radius.
3. Sketch the full circle.
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Large Circle
1. Place the little finger (or pencil s tip) at the center as a
pivot, and set the pencil point at the radius-distance from
the center.
2. Hold the hand in this position and rotate the paper.
Arc
Method 1 : Starting with a square
Method 2 : Starting with a center line
Steps in Sketching
1. Block in main shape.
2. Locate the features.
3. Sketch arcs and circles.
4. Sketch lines.
77
Example
78
Reference Planes
Vertical plane(VP)
Horizontal plane(HP)
A
B
ion
t
a
v
Ele
First angle
VP
Third angle
HP
n
Pla
Auxiliary Plane
Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP)

Auxiliary Vertical Plane (AVP)
80
Solution Given,
ha = +50,
da = +30
As ha and da both are (+), the point A is in the first quadrant. Therefore, FV of
the point will be seen above XY at a distance of 50 mm and TV will be seen
below XY at a distance of 30 mm.
81
A Point in the Second Quadrant
Example 2 Draw the projections of the point B, which is 50 mm above the HP
and 30 mm behind the VP.
Solution Given,
hb = +50,
db = 30
As hb is (+) and dp is (), the point B lies in the second quadrant. Therefore, FV
and TV, both will be seen above XY at a distance of 50 mm and 30 mm
respectively. This is because when the HP is rotated in a clockwise direction
about XY, the TV on the HP will go up on the side of the FV.
82
A Point in the Third Quadrant
Example 3 Draw the projections of the point C, 50 mm below the HP and 30
mm behind the VP.
Solution Given,
hc = 50,
dc = 30
As hc and dc both are (), the point C is in the third quadrant. Therefore, FV will
be seen 50 mm below XY and TV will be seen 30 mm above XY.
83
A Point in the Fourth Quadrant
Example 4 Draw the projections of the point D, which is 50 mm below the HP
and 30 mm in front of the VP.
Solution Given,
hd = 50,
dd = +30
As hd is () and dd is (+), the point D lies in the fourth quadrant. Therefore, FV

and TV both will be seen below XY at a distance of 50 mm and 30 mm
respectively. When the HP is rotated in a clockwise direction about XY, the TV
on the HP will go down on the side of the FV.
84
A Point in the HP and Behind the VP
Example 8 Draw the projections of the point H, which is in the HP and 30 mm
behind the VP.
Solution
Given,
hh = 0,
dh = 30
As hh = 0, FV will be seen on XY. As dh = 30, TV will be seen 30 mm above XY.
85
A Point in Both the RPs
Example 9 Draw the projections of the point I, which lies in both the RPs.
Solution
Given,
hi = 0,
di = 0
If the point I lies in both the RPs then it lies at the intersection of the two RPs,
i.e., on XY. Hence, its FV and TV both will coincide on XY.
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PROFILE PLANE
Profile plane is perpendicular to both HP and VP
Side views are drawn in the profile plane
Frontal Plane (Vertical Plane)
PP
Y
X
HP
Horizontal Plane (Top Plane)
87
SV OF THE POINT
Example 10 Draw the LHSV of the point A, which is 50 mm above the HP and
30 mm front of the VP.
Solution
SV is always drawn to the side of FV. Here, the LHSV of the point is drawn to
the right side of FV, because the point is in first quadrant. X1 Y1 may be taken
arbitrarily at any suitable distance from FV and TV.
88
PROJECTIONS OF LINES
A line is the path of a moving point.
Straight line is the shortest distance between any two
points in space.
Line consists of a number of points, its projections are
drawn by joining the projections of any two points on the
line (preferably the end points) .
Terms Used in Projections of Lines

True Length (TL): The actual length of a line is called its true
length.
Inclination of a Line: The angle which a line makes with the
reference plane. Inclination of the line with HP is denoted by
and inclination with VP is .
Apparent Angle with the HP (): It is the angle which an
oblique line seems to be making with the HP in FV. It is the
angle between FV and XY. It is indicated by .
Apparent Angle with the VP () : It is the angle which an
oblique line seems to be making with the VP in TV. It is the
angle between TV and XY. It is indicated by .
Plan Length (PL) or Top View Length: The apparent length of
a line seen in TV is called the plan length or top view length.
Terms Used in Projections of Lines

Elevation Length (EL) or Front View Length: The apparent
length of a line seen in FV is called the elevation length or
front view length.
Side View Length (SVL): The apparent length of a line seen in
SV is called its side view length.
Traces of a Line: It is the Point of intersection of the line with a
plane. The vertical trace is the intersection of line with VP and
denoted as vt and the intersection of line with HP is the
horizontal trace and denoted as ht.
Point View of the Line: The view of a line seen as a point (i.e.,
when the views of two ends coincide) is called the point view.
POSITIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES
1. Line parallel to both the RPs
Case (i): Line away from both the RPs
Case (ii): Line in the HP and away from the VP
Case (iii): Line in the VP and away from the HP
Case (iv): Line contained by both the RPs
2. Line perpendicular to either of the RPs
Case (i): Line perpendicular to the HP and away from the
VP
Case (ii): Line perpendicular to the HP and in the VP
Case (iii): Line perpendicular to the VP and away from the
HP
Case (iv): Line perpendicular to the VP and in the HP
3. Line inclined to one RP and parallel to the other
Case (i): Line inclined to the HP, parallel to the VP and
away from the VP
Case (ii): Line inclined to the HP and in the VP
Case (iii): Line inclined to the VP, parallel to the HP and
away from the HP
Case (iv): Line inclined to the VP and in the HP
4. Line inclined to both the RPs (Oblique line)
Case (i): ha less than hb and da less than db
Case (ii): ha less than hb and da greater than db
Case (iii): ha greater than hb and da less than db
Case (iv): ha greater than hb and da greater than db (A and
B being the two ends of the line.)
5. Line parallel to (or contained by) the PP

Case (i): Line parallel to the PP and the HP
Case (ii): Line parallel to the PP and the VP
Case (iii): Line parallel to the PP and inclined to the HP
and the VP
LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH THE RPs
Example 1 Draw the projections of a line AB that is 50 mm long and is parallel

to both the HP and the VP. The line is 40 mm above the HP and 25 mm in front
of the VP.
LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH THE RPs
Solution:
The line AB is parallel to both the VP and the HP. So, its FV and TV, will be parallel to XY and
both will show the TL (= 50 mm). If a line is parallel to both the HP and the VP, it must be
perpendicular to the PP. Therefore, point A and point B will coincide in SV of the line. Hence, the
LHSV is a point view.
Example 2 A line AB, 50 mm long, is perpendicular to the HP and

25 mm in front of the VP. Draw its projections if the end nearest to
the HP is 10 mm above the HP.
Solution:
If a line is perpendicular to the HP, it will automatically be parallel to the VP and PP. Hence, its FV
will show the TL. TV will be a point view.
Wherever two (or more) points overlap, the visible point should be marked first. For example, in
Fig. TV is marked as a, b. It means that a is visible and b is hidden. The hidden point(s) may be
enclosed in parenthesis ( ), e.g., a( b).
Example 3 A line AB, 50 mm long, is inclined to the HP at 30 and parallel to

the VP. The end nearest to the HP is 40 mm above it and 25 mm in front of the
VP. Draw the projections.
Solution:
As the line AB is inclined to the HP and parallel to the VP, its FV will show TL.
Assuming that the line AB is initially parallel to both the RPs,

draw its FV ab1 and TV ab1 as shown. ab1 is 40 mm above XY
and ab1 25 mm below XY. ab1= ab1 = TL = 50 mm.
Rotate ab1 about a through 30 to get ab. ab= ab1= TL.
The angle made by ab with XY represents .
Project b below XY to obtain b on ab1.
ab and ab represent respectively FV and TV of the line. Note
that ab (= EL) is equal to TL and ab(= PL) is shorter than TL.
Obtain LHSV a b by projecting ab and ab with respect to X1
Y1.
Example 4 A line AB, 50 mm long, is inclined at 45 to

the VP and parallel to the HP. The nearest end of the
line is 25 mm in front of the VP. Draw the projections
of the line if it is 40 mm above the HP.
Solution:
1. Draw TV ab = TL, inclined at 45 to XY. a is 25 mm below XY.
2. Project ab above XY to obtain ab. ab and ab represent respectively TV and FV of the line.
LINE INCLINED TO BOTH THE RPs (OBLIQUE LINE)
We have seen that if a line is inclined to the HP, its TV will be shorter than the TL and if
a line is inclined to the VP, its FV will be shorter than the TL. Therefore, if a line is
inclined to both the RPs, its TV and FV will be shorter than TL. Obviously, its true
inclinations and will not be visible in FV and TV. Instead of the true inclinations, FV
and TV will show apparent inclinations with the HP and the VP, i.e., and
respectively.
The major concern in the projections of the oblique line is to obtain its apparent
inclinations, and . This can be achieved in two stages as mentioned below.
Stage 1
Assuming that a line (say AB1 = TL) is inclined to the HP at and parallel to the VP,
draw its projections ab1 and ab1. ab1 will show PL. If the line is made inclined to the
VP at any angle (keeping unchanged) then TV will no longer remain parallel to XY. It
will get tilted through a specific angle. In such a case, if the TV is tilted about one of its
endpoints (say a), its other end (i.e., b1) will trace a circle. This circle represents the
locus of that point (i.e., B1) in TV. Note that, in FV, this circle is seen as a line parallel
to XY. This line represents the locus of that point (i.e., B1) in FV. It is shown by ff.
Now, suppose ab1 is tilted about a through, say
1, in such a way that b1 occupies the new
position b on the circle. ab now represents the
TV of the line inclined to both the RPs. 1 will
give the apparent angle between the line and the
VP. Let the real angle corresponding to 1 be
1.
As soon as b1 moves to b, b1 moves to b along
ff. This is so because the circular path of b1 in
TV is represented by linear path ff in FV. ab
now represents the FV of the line inclined to
both the RPs. Let the angle made by ab with
XY is 1. 1 represents the apparent angle
between the line and the HP.
Note that ab and ab represent the final TV and
final FV respectively of a line AB which is
inclined to both the HP and the VP. To obtain
these views, we must know TL, and .
However, in this stage, was unknown.
Stage 1
Stage 2
Assuming that a line (say AB2 = TL = AB1 in Stage 1) is
inclined to the VP at and parallel to the HP, draw its
projections ab2 and ab2. ab2 will show EL. If the
line is made inclined to the HP at any angle (keeping
unchanged) then FV will get tilted through a specific
angle. In such a case, if the FV is tilted about one of its
endpoints (say a), its other end (i.e., b2) will trace a
circle. This circle represents the locus of B2 in FV. In TV,
this circle is seen as a line parallel to XY. This line
represents the locus of B2 in TV. It is shown by tt.
Now, suppose ab2 is tilted about a through, say 2, in such a way that b2 occupies new position b
on the circle. ab now represents the FV of the line inclined to both the RPs. 2 will give the apparent
angle between the line and the HP. Let the real angle corresponding to 2 be 2.
As soon as b2 moves to b, b2 moves to b along tt. ab now represents the TV of the line inclined to
both the RPs. Let the angle made by ab with XY be 2. 2 will represent the apparent angle between
the line and the VP.
ab and ab represent the final FV and final TV respectively of a line AB which is inclined to both the
HP and the VP. To obtain these views, we must know TL, and . However, in this stage, was
unknown.
In Stage 1, we have obtained the FV and TV of line AB inclined at to the HP and 1 to the VP.
Similarly, in Stage 2, we have obtained the FV and TV of line AB inclined at 2 to the HP and
to the VP. Note that, in both the stages, the line AB has same TL. We knew in Stage 1 and in
Stage 2. If = 2 and 1 = , then 1 = 2 and 1 = 2. If end A is at same distances from the HP
and the VP in both the stages the end B will assume same positions in both the stages. As all the
parameters, namely, TL, , , ha, da, hb and db are same in Fig. (Stage 1) and Fig. (Stage 2), we can
overlap these figures as shown in Fig. (Stage 3).
Stage 2
Stage 3
Example 5 A line AB, 50 mm long, is inclined to the HP at 30 and to the VP at 45. The
point A is 20 mm above the HP and 35 mm in front of the VP. Draw the projections of
the line. Assume that the end A is nearer to both the RPs than end B.
Given: TL = 50 = 30 = 45 ha = +20 da = +35
1. Draw the initial FV ab1 and initial TV ab1 of the line assuming that it is inclined to
the HP at 30 and parallel to the VP.
a is 20 mm above XY, ab1= 50 mm and = 30.
a is 35 mm below XY and ab1 parallel to XY.
2. Draw the initial TV ab2 and initial FV ab2 assuming that the line is inclined to the
VP at 45 and parallel to the HP.
ab2 = 50 mm and = 45.
ab2 is parallel to XY.
3. Draw ff passing through b1 and parallel to XY.
4. Draw tt passing through b2 and parallel to XY.
5. With a as a centre and radius = ab2, draw an arc cutting ff at b. ab is the final FV. ab makes
with XY.
6. With a as a centre and radius = ab1, draw an arc cutting tt at b. ab is the final TV. ab makes
with XY.
Note that b and b lie on the same projector. Hence, after Step 5, b can be obtained directly by
projecting b on tt.
LINE PARALLEL TO (OR CONTAINED BY) THE PP
If the sum of the inclinations of a line with the HP and the VP is equal to 90, i.e.,
+ = 90, then the line is parallel to the PP. In this case, TV and FV will be
perpendicular to XY. The SV will give TL and true inclinations.
Example 6 A line AB, 50 mm long, is inclined at 30 to the HP and 60 to the
VP. Its end A is 25 mm above the HP and 20 mm in front of the VP. Draw its
projections.
LINE PARALLEL TO (OR CONTAINED BY) THE PP
Given: TL = 50 = 30 = 60 ha = +25 da = +20
Solution As + = 90, the line is parallel to (or in) the PP.
Method 1: Refer Fig. (a).
1. Assuming the line inclined at 30 to the HP and parallel to the VP, draw its FV
ab1 and TV ab1 as shown.
2. Assuming the line inclined at 60 to the VP and parallel to the HP, draw its TV
ab2 and FV ab2 as shown.
3. Draw ff and tt.
4. With a as a centre and radius = ab2, draw an arc meeting ff at b. Join ab
for the final FV.
5. With a as a centre and radius = ab1, draw an arc meeting tt at b. Join ab for the final TV.
Note that the arcs b2b and b1 b are tangent to ff and tt respectively. Hence = = 90
Method 2: Refer Fig. (b).
As the line is in the PP, its SV will give TL and true inclinations. Hence, first draw SV a b as
shown. Then obtain its FV ab and TV ab by projecting the SV on X1 Y1.
TRACES OF A LINE
A trace is a point at which the line or its extension

meets the HP or the VP. A line will show an HT if it
is inclined to the HP. Similarly, a line will show a VT
if it is inclined to the VP. A line parallel to both the
RPs will have no trace.
The HT is always seen on TV or extension of TV,
whereas the VT is always seen on FV or extension of
FV. The projection of the HT on the XY line is
indicated by h. The projection of the VT on the XY
line is indicated by v. The terms h-HT and v-VT may
be used to indicate the distances of the HT and the
VT respectively from the RPs.
Procedure to Locate the Traces
To Locate HT
1. Produce, if necessary, the FV to meet the XY. Mark the point of intersection of FV (produced) with
XY as h.
2. Draw a projector through h. The point at which this projector meets the TV (produced if necessary)
is the HT of the line.
To Locate VT
1. Produce, if necessary, the TV to meet the XY. Mark the point of intersection of TV (produced)
with XY as v.
2. Draw a projector through v. The point at which this projector meets the FV (produced if
necessary) is the VT of the line.
Example 8 The TV of a line CD measures 80 mm and makes an angle of 55 with XY. End C is
in the VP and the HT of the line is 25 mm above XY. The line is inclined at 30 to the HP. Draw
the projections of line CD. Determine its TL, true inclination with the VP, and the VT.
Given: PL = 80
= 55
dc = 0
h-HT = +25
= 30
Solution:
1. Mark c on XY and draw cd = PL = 80 mm inclined at 55 to XY. Extend dc and locate HT 25
mm above XY on it.
2. Draw HT- d1 = HT- d parallel to XY.
3. Obtain h and draw h d1 inclined at 30 to XY meeting D1 at d1.
4. Draw f f and obtain d on it by projecting d. Join hd.
5. Project c on hd to locate c. cd represents the final FV.
6. To find TL and , obtain cd2 as shown. As c is on XY, c gives VT.
Bearing of a line is the acute angle
made by its TV with the north or
south direction. It is customary to
assume north vertically upward. A
bearing indicates the direction of one
end of the line with respect to the
other.
The bearings of the lines are as follows:

Bearings
(a) Line AB
N 45 E (w.r.t. A)
S 45 W (w.r.t. B)
(b) Line CD
(c) Line EF
Meaning
B is due 45 East of North of A
A is due 45 West of South of B
Due East (w.r.t. C)
D is due East of C
Due West (w.r.t. D)
C is due West of D
Due North (w.r.t. E)
F is due North of E
Due South (w.r.t. F)
E is due South of F
Grade (or gradient) of a line gives its inclination with the HP. It is a vertical rise (or fall) of the line
per unit horizontal advancement, expressed as percentage, i.e. (y/x)*100, Fig. However, in many
cases, gradient is expressed as y in x or y : x. Slope is synonymous with grade.
ANGLES OF DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION
If an observer is looking toward the object situated below his eye level, the angle made by his rays
of sight with the horizontal is called the angle of depression. If the object is situated above the eye
level of the observer, the similar angle is called the angle of elevation.
Example 7 Two straight roads AB and AC are 2 km and 1.4 km long respectively. AB bears N 40
E on a downward slope of 30. AC bears S 35 E on a downward grade of 15. Draw the
projections. Find TL, bearing and grade of the new road joining B to C.
Given:
AB:
TL = 2 km, Bearing = N 40 E, Grade = 30
AC:
TL = 1.4 km, Bearing = S 35 E, Grade = 15
Solution:
1. Mark a and a, at suitable distances, below and above XY respectively.
2. Draw ab1= 2 km and ac1= 1.4 km making 30o and 15o respectively to XY. Note that AB and
AC has downward grade with respect to A.
3. Project b1 and c1 below XY to obtain ab1 and ac1 parallel to XY. ab1 and ac1 give PLs of AB
and AC respectively.
4. Rotate ab1 to ab to make 40o with the vertical. Similarly, rotate ac1 to ac to make 35o with the
vertical. ab and ac gives required TVs.
5. Project b and c on fb fb and fc fc respectively to obtain desired FVs ab and ac.
6. Join cb and cb. Rotate cb to obtain cb2 parallel to XY and then project b2 to b2 on fb fb. Join
cb2. Measure . cb2 and gives TL and grade of CB.
7. Measure , i.e., angle made by cb with the vertical. It gives the bearing of BC, i.e., N o E.
What is a Solid?????
A solid is a three dimensional object having
length, breadth and thickness.
It is
completely bounded by a surface or surfaces
which may be curved or plane.
PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS
-The shape of the solid is described by
drawing its two orthographic views usually
on the two principle planes i.e. H.P. & V.P.
-For some complicated solids, in addition to
the above principle views, side view is also
required.
-A solid is an aggregate of points, lines and
planes and all problems on projections of
solids
would
resolve
themselves
into
projections of points, lines and planes.
Classification
of
Solids:may be divided into two main
Solids
groups;
(A) Polyhedra
(B) Solids of revolution
(A) Polyhedra :
A Polyhedra is defined as a solid
bounded by planes called faces which
meet in straight lines called edges.
There are seven regular Polyhedra

which may be defined as stated below;
(1) Prism
(2) Pyramid
(3) Tetrahedron
(4) Cube or Hexahedron:
(5)Octahedron: Eight equal equilateral
triangles as faces
(6) Dodecahedron: Twelve equal and
regular pentagons as faces
(7) Icosahedron: Twenty faces all
equal equilateral triangles
(1) Prism:
It is a polyhedra having two
equal and similar faces
called its ends or bases,
parallel to each other and
joined by other faces which
are rectangles.
-The
imaginary
line joining the
Centres of the
bases or faces is
called
Axis
of
Prism.
Edge
Axis
Faces
According to the shape of its

base,
prism
can
be
sub
(a)
Triangular
classified into following types:
Prism:
(b) Square Prism:
(c)
Pentagonal
Prism:
(d)
Prism:
Hexagonal
(2)
Pyramid:
This is a polyhedra having plane
surface as a base and a number

of triangular faces meeting at a
point called the Vertex or Apex.
-The
imaginary
line joining the
Apex
with
the
Centre
of
the
base
is
called
Axis of pyramid.
Edge
Axis
Base
According to the shape of its

base, pyramid can be sub
(a)
classifiedTriangular
into following types:
Pyramid:
(b)
Square
Pyramid:
(c)
Pentagonal
Pyramid:
(d)
Hexagonal
Pyramid:
(B)
Solids
of
When
a solid is generated by revolutions
Revolutions:
of a plane figure about a fixed line (Axis)
then such solids are named as solids of
revolution.
Solids of revolutions may be of following
types;
(1) Cylinder
(2) Cone
(3) Sphere
(4) Ellipsoid
(5) Paraboloid
(6) Hyperboloid
(1)
A
right
circular
cylinder
is
a
solid
Cylinder:
generated by the revolution of a
rectangle about its vertical side
which remains fixed.
Rectangle
Axis
Base
(2) Cone:
A right circular cone is a solid
generated by the revolution of a right
angle triangle about its vertical side
which remains fixed.
Right angle
triangle
Generators
Axis
Base
Ellipsoid
Paraboloid
Hyperboloid
Important Terms Used in Projections of Solids:

(1)
Edge
or
generator:
For Pyramids & Prisms, edges are the
lines separating the triangular faces or
rectangular faces from each other.
For Cylinder, generators are the
straight lines joining different points
on the circumference of the bases with
each other

(2) Apex of solids:
Apex
For Cone and

Pyramids, Apex
is
the
point
where all the
generators
or
the edges meet.
Edges
PYRAMID
Apex
Generators
CONE
Rectangle
Axis
Generators
Base
Edge
CYLINDER
PRISM
Axis
Faces

(3) Axis of Solid:
For Cone and Pyramids, Axis is an
imaginary line joining centre of
the base to the Apex.
For Cylinder and Prism, Axis is an
imaginary line joining centres of
ends or bases.

(4) Right Solid:
A solid is said to
be a Right Solid
if its axis is
perpendicular to
its base.
Axis
Base

(5)
Oblique
ASolid:
solid is said
to be a Oblique
Solid if its axis
is inclined at
an angle other
than 90 to its
base.
Axis
Base
(6) Regular Solid:

A solid is said to be a Regular Solid if
all the edges of the base or the end
faces of a solid are equal in length and
form regular plane figures

(7) Frustum of Solid:
When a Pyramid or a
Cone is cut by a Plane
parallel to its base,
thus removing the top
portion, the remaining
lower portion is called
its frustum.
CUTTING PLANE
PARALLEL
TO
BASE
FRUSTUM OF A
PYRAMID

(8) Truncated Solid :
When a Pyramid or a
Cone is cut by a Plane
inclined to its base,
thus removing the top
portion, the remaining
lower portion is said to
be truncated.
Projection of Solid in Simple

Position
A solid in simple position may have its axis perpendicular
to one reference plane or parallel to both
When the axis is perpendicular to H.P., the top view should be
drawn first and the front view projected from it
When the axis is perpendicular to V.P., the front view should be
drawn first and the top view projected from it
When the axis is parallel to both H.P. and V.P., neither

the top view nor the front view will show the actual shape
of the base
The side view drawn first. Then the front view and top view are
then projected from the side view
Axis perpendicular to H. P. and hence parallel

to both V.P. & P.P.
o
Axis
a,b
c,d
a
b
d
o
Axis perpendicular to V.P. and hence parallel to

both H.P. & P.P.
f,6
a,1
e,5
d,4
b,2 c,3
1 2,6 3,5 4
a b,f
c,e d
Axis perpendicular to P.P. and hence parallel

to both H.P. & V.P.
L
c
a,b
12 a1
X
a
c3
b2
Axis parallel to V.P. and inclined to H.P. by &

also inclined to P.P.
Example 1 :
A right regular pentagonal prism,

side of base 30 mm and height of
axis as 75mm rests on HP on one
of its base corners such that its
long edge containing the corner is
inclined to the HP at 60. Draw its
projections.
a1
75
c1 d1 e1 b1
d c
41 21 51
e1 51
41
30
d1
c1
31
11
11
a1
31
SCALE:-1:1
b1 21
eb
1 60
e
a
1
3
c
2
a1
75
c1 d1 e1 b1
d c
41 21 51
e1 51
41
30
d1
c1
31
11
11
a1
31
SCALE:-1:1
b1 21
eb
1 60
e
a
1
3
c
2
Example 2 :
A tetrahedron of 40 mm
long edges, rests on HP on
one of its edges such that
the face containing that
edge is inclined to HP at
30 and the same edge is
inclined at 45 to VP. Draw
the projections of the solid.
a1
a2
d2
d1
c1
c
a
30
b1
c1
b
c
a1
40
b2
a2
d1 b2
c2
45 c2
d2
a1
a2
d2
d1
c1
c
a
30
b1
c1
b
c
a1
40
b2
45
a2
d1 b2
b1
c2
c2
d2
Example 3 :
A cone, diameter of base 60mm and
height 70mm, is resting on HP on
the point of periphery of the base.
Axis of the cone makes 60 with HP
and 30 with the VP. Draw the
projections of the cone, when the
apex is nearer to the VP.
O1
O2
70
a1
a2
g2
60
e
a
b,hc,gd,f
g
f
h
e
a
b
60
e1
g1
a1
e2
O2
e2
e1
g2
O1
O
a2
c1
c2
30 Y
Locus
of
.
L
T.
O2
c2
Example 4 :
A regular pentagonal prism of
25mm long edges and axis
70mm long rests on HP on one
of its corner of the base. The
slant edge passing through
corner makes 45 with HP and
the side opposite to the same
corner makes 30 with VP.
Draw its projections.
2
1
3
5
a1
b 1
a
X b
1a
2
22
11
21 51
31 4
1
e
c d
5
e
a1
d 4
b1
c
3
e1
c1
=45
e1
11
d1
21
c1
32
b2
d1
12
52
42
a2
e2
c2
d2
a
2
= 30
b2
51
41
31
c2
e2
12
22 d2
32
52
42
2
1
3
5
a1
b 1
a
X b
1a
2
22
11
21 51
31 4
1
e
c d
5
e
a1
d 4
b1
c
3
e1
c1
=45
e1
11
d1
21
c1
32
b2
d1
12
52
42
a2
e2
c2
d2
a
2
= 30
b2
51
41
31
c2
e2
12
22 d2
32
52
42
Example 5 :
A regular hexagonal prism of
30 mm sides and axis 80 mm
long is resting on HP on one
of its corners of the base. The
axis makes 30 with HP and
plan of the axis makes 45
with
the
VP.
Draw
its
projections.
26 3 5
1
4
a
X
b f
f
6
a1
2
b
11
61
21
51
31 4
a1 f1
b1
e1
c1 d
d
1
22
b2
a2
c2
12
32
f2
e2
d2
62
52
42
c e
f2
45
61 5
e
f1 e1
a
2
e
1
2
5
4 d a1
d1 1 1
41 b2
62
d2
3
c2
12
52
b
c
21 31
1 c1
22
42
32
Exercise 1
A cube of 40 mm edges, is resting on the H.P. on
one of the edges of the base with face containing
that edge making 30 with the H.P. The edge on
which the cube rests on the H.P. is making 30
with the V.P. Draw the projections.
Exercise 2
A square pyramid, side of base 50 mm and height
64 mm, is freely suspended from one of the
corners of the base. Draw its projections when
vertical plane containing axis makes an angle of
45 with the VP.
PROJECTIONS OF
SOLIDS
THANK YOU
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INTRODUCTION

Composition of Graphic Language

Freehand drawing (SKETCHING)

Elements of Engineering Drawing

Basic Knowledge for Drafting

The projection theory is based on two variables:

is an imaginary ray of light between an

observers eye and an object.

Plane of projection is an imaginary flat plane which

A point represents a location in space.

It is a dimensionless geometrical entity which has

A point is usually represented by a dot or a very

Projections of points have no practical significance.

Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP)

The distances of a point from the HP and the VP are

The space-coordinates hp and

PROJECTIONS OF POINTS: SYSTEMATIC APPROACH

A Point in the First Quadrant

Example 1 Draw the projections of the point A, which is 50 mm above the HP

More than one view is needed

Axonometric (Isometric) Drawing

Shape and angle distortion

Distortions of shape and size in isometric drawing

Right angle becomes obtuse angle.

It represents accurate shape and size.

Disadvantage Require practice in writing and reading.

Multiviews drawing (2-view drawing)

Drawing standards are used so that drawings convey

American National Standard Institute

Deutsches Institut fr Normung

Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element

for full size

SCALE X:1 for enlargement scales (X > 1)

Dimension numbers shown in the drawing are correspond

Basic Line Types

Continuous thick line

Continuous thin line

Dash thick line

Chain thin line

NOTE : We will learn other types of line in later chapters.

represents symmetry, path of motion, centers

Dimension and Extension lines indicate the sizes and

Example : Line conventions in engineering drawing

2H or HB for thick line

Placement of the text on drawing

Use a Gothic text style,

Use only a vertical Gothic

either inclined or vertical.

Use all capital letters.

Use both capital and

Use 3 mm for most

Same. For letters in title

block it is recommend to use

Space between lines

of text is at least 1/3

Follows ANSI rule.

Examples : Application of basic stroke

The text s body height is about 2/3 the height of a capital

Example : Good and Poor Lettering

ALL ODIMENSIONS OARE OIN

Method 2 : Starting with a center line

Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP)