World Englishes

Jennifer Jenkins

A resource book for

students

Strand 2: Pidgins and creoles

Definition pidgin
A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is
no ones first language but is a contact language.
(Wardhaugh 2006: 613)

Definition creole
In contrast to a pidgin, a creole is often defined as a
pidgin that has become the first language of a new
generation of speakers.
(Wardhaugh 2006: 613)
A2

Pidgins
-

Stigmatisation as inferior, bad languages

European expansion into Africa and Asia during
colonial period
Contact languages between dominant European
language speakers and speakers of mutually
unintelligible indigenous African and American
languages
Fulfils restricted communicative needs between
people who do not share a common language
Little need for grammatical redundancy

A2

Creoles
Creolisation: development of a pidgin into a creole
A: children of pidgin speakers use their parents pidgin
language as a mother tongue creole
B: pidgin is used as a lingua franca in multilingual areas and
develops to be used for an increasing number of
functions creole
- Vocabulary expands and grammar increases in
complexity
Decreolisation: through extensive contact with the
dominant language develops towards standard dominant
language
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Theories of origins
Three groups of theories
1 Monogenesis: pidgins have a single origin
2 Polygenesis: pidgins have an independent origin
3 Universal: pidgins derive from universal strategies

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Monogenesis
The theory of monogenesis and relexification:
All European-based pidgins and creoles derive
ultimately from one proto-pidgin source, a Portuguese
pidgin that was used in the worlds trade routes
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
Evidence for this theory: many linguistic similarities
between present-day Portuguese pidgins and
creoles, and pidgins and creoles related to other
European languages
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Polygenesis
The independent parallel development theory:
Pidgins and creoles arose and developed
independently, but in similar ways because they
shared a common linguistic ancestor
Pidgins and creoles were formed in similar social
and physical conditions

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Polygenesis
The nautical jargon theory:
A nautical jargon, i.e. the European sailors lingua
franca, formed a nucleus for the various pidgins,
which were expanded in line with their learners
mother tongues
Evidence for this theory: nautical element in all
pidgins and creoles with European lexicons

A2

Universal
The baby talk theory:
Based on similarities between certain pidgins and
early speech of children
Also because speakers of the dominant language
use foreigner talk (simplified speech) with L2
speakers

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Universal
A synthesis:
Based on universal patterns of linguistic behaviour
in contact situations
Inherent universal constraints on language
Evidence for this theory: proficient as well as less
proficient speakers from different L1s and speech
communities simplify their language in very similar
ways; children go through the same stages in the
mastery of speech
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Characteristics of pidgins and creoles

Lexis

Drawn from lexifier language (usually a European language)

Systematic and rule-governed
Concepts encoded in lengthier ways
Extensive use of reduplication

Pronunciation

Fewer sounds
Simplification of consonant clusters
Conflation
Large number of homophones

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Characteristics of pidgins and creoles

Grammar

Few inflections in nouns, pronouns, verbs and adjectives

Simple negative particle for negation
Uncomplicated clause structure

Development of pidgins creoles

Assimilation and reduction

Expansion of vocabulary
Development of tense system in verbs
Greater sentence complexity

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Characteristics of pidgins and creoles

Social functions

Wide range of social functions beyond the original purpose to

serve as basic contact languages
Literature (written and oral)
Education
Mass media
Advertising
The Bible

B2

London Jamaican

A combination of Jamaican Creole and a local form

of non-standard English
Powerful marker of group identity
Shows grammatical, phonological and lexical
features of Jamaican Creole
Also shows features of London English which do not
occur in Jamaican Creole

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Ebonics

Also known as Africa-American Vernacular English

(AAVE)
No agreement on how it developed
Debate about its status and the approach to be
taken in schools

Oakland school board: Ebonics regarded as valid linguistic

system and as second language, used as language of
instruction
Strong reactions: many opposed this approach, some were
in favour
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