Course Specifications

A Basic Information

Course Title:
Heat Engine and Combustion (B)
Code:MPE321
Lecture: 2 Tutorial: 2 Practical: 0
Total: 4
Program on which the course is given:
B.Sc.
Mechanical Engineering (Power)
Major or minor element of program:
Major
Department offering the program: Mechanical Engineering
Department
Department offering the course: Mechanical Engineering
Department
Academic year / level: Third Year / Second Semester
Date of specifications approval: 10/5/2006

B- Professional Information
1- Overall aims of course

By the end of the course the students will be able

to:
Identify the different types of fuels and their
properties.
- Understand the concepts and principles of the
chemical reactions.
- Understand the basic principles of the chemical and
the phase equilibrium.
- Apply the first and second law of thermodynamics on
chemical reactions.
- Know the different types of flames and their theories.
- Know the construction and operation of the industrial
furnaces and their applications.
- Know the factors affecting the furnaces performance.

2-Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

a) Knowledge and Understanding:
a.5) Methodologies of solving engineering
problems, data collection interpretation.
a.8) Current engineering technologies as related to
disciplines.

a.13) Fundamentals of thermal and fluid

processes.

a.18) Mechanical power and energy engineering

contemporary issues.
a.19) Basic theories and principles of some other
engineering and mechanical engineering
disciplines providing support to mechanical power
and energy disciplines

2-Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

b) Intellectual Skills
b.1) Select appropriate mathematical and
computer-based methods for modeling and
analyzing problems.
b.5) Assess and evaluate the characteristics and
performance of components, systems and
processes
b.7) Solve engineering problems, often on the
basis of limited and possibly contradicting
information.
b.11) Analyze results of numerical models and
appreciate their limitations.
b.13) Evaluate mechanical power and energy
engineering design, processes, and performance
and propose improvements.

2-Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

Professional and Practical Skills

c.1) Apply knowledge of mathematics,
science, information technology, design,
business context and engineering practice
to solve engineering problems.
c.12) Prepare and present technical reports.
c.16) Describe the basic thermal and fluid
processes mathematically and use the
computer software for their simulation and
analysis.

1-Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

General and Transferable Skills

d.3) Communicate effectively.
d.4) Demonstrate efficient IT capabilities.
d.7) Search for information and engage in
life-long self learning discipline.

3- Contents
No
1
2
3
4
5
6

Topic
Fuel types and properties
Chemical reactions
Theoretical and actual
combustion processes
Enthaply of formation, enthalpy
of reaction
1st and 2nd law analysis of
combustion processes
Chemical equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium
(continued)
Phase equilibrium

No. of
hours
2
2
2
2
2
2

ILOs

Teaching / learning methods and

strategies

Assessment method

a.8, c.12,d.4,d.7
a.5, a.13, b.5, b.7,
b.13, c.1

Lecture
Lecture tutorial

Report
Assignment

a.5, a.13, b.5, b.7,

b.13, c.1
a.5, a.13, b.5, b.7,
b.13, c.1

Lecture tutorial

Assignment

Lecture tutorial

Quiz

a.13,b.7, c.1
a.13,b.7, c.1

Lecture tutorial
Lecture tutorial

Assignment
Quiz
Assignment

Laminar premixed flames

Lecture tutorial
Mid-term exam
a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, c.1,
Lecture tutorial
c.12,c.16, d.3,d.7

10

Laminar diffusion flames

a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, c.1,
c.12,c.16, d.3,d.7

Lecture tutorial

Quiz - Report

11

Turbulent premixed and nonpremixed flames

a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, c.1,
c.12,c.16, d.3,d.7

Lecture tutorial

Assignment

12

Introduction to industrial
furnaces

a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, b.13,
c.1,c.12, d.4, d.7

Lecture tutorial

Assignment

13

Heat transfer in industrial

furnaces

a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, b.13,
c.1,c.12, d.4, d.7

Lecture tutorial

Quiz

14

Saving energy in industrial

furnacs

a.8,a.13,a.19,b.7, b.13,
c.1,c.12, d.4, d.7

Lecture tutorial

Assignment - Report

7
8

15

a.13,b.7, c.1

Final exam

Assignment

Teaching and Learning Methods

____ Lectures
_____ Practical training / laboratory
_____ Seminar / workshop
____ Class activity
____ Tutorial
_____ Case study
____ Assignments / homework
Other : Self study

Student Assessment Methods

________ Assignments to assess knowledge and
intellectual skills. .
________ Quiz to assess knowledge, intellectual and
professional skills.
________ Mid-term exam to assess knowledge, intellectual,
professional and general skills.
________ Oral exam to assess knowledge, intellectual,
professional and general skills.
________ Final exam to assess knowledge, intellectual,
professional and general skills.
Other: Self study to assess knowledge, intellectual,
professional and general skills.

1.Assessment schedule
Assessment 1 on weeks 2, 5, 9, 11
Assessment 2 Quizzes on weeks 4, 6, 10, 13
Assessment 3 Mid-term exam on week 8
Assessment 4 Oral Exam on week 14
Assessment 5 Final exam on week 15
Weighting of Assessments
Mid- Term Examination
Final- Term
Examination
Oral Examination
Practical Examination
Semester Work
Other
Total

15%
60%
15%
00%
05%
05%
100%

8- List of References

8.1- G. Van Wylen, R. Sonntag and C.

Borgnakke, "Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics", Jhon Wiley &Sons. 1994.
8.2-.Yunis, A. Cengle, and Michael A. Boles,
Thermodynamics- an Engineering
Approach Fifth edition,
8.3-.J. Warnatz U. Maas R.W. Dibble,
Combustion, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg 1996, 1999, 2001

Facilities Required for Teaching and learning

Lecture room
Presentation board, computer and data show

Course coordinator:
Prof. Dr. Ramadan Y. Sakr
Course instructor:
Prof. Dr. Ramadan Y. Sakr
Head of department: Prof. Dr. Maher G. A. Higazy
Date: 26/10/ 2011

Fuels & Fuels Properties

Lecture 1

Crude Oil

Found in rock formations that were

ocean floors.
Organic matter from seas became
trapped by sediments at ocean floor.
Progressing cracking of the
molecules and elimination of oxygen
turned organic matter into
petroleum.

Crude Oil

Petroleum is made of 86% carbon

and 14% hydrogen.
Hydrocarbon molecules are
accompanied by dirt, water, sulfur
and other impurities.
Crude oil must be refined to produce
suitable engine fuels.

Fig. 5.1: Molecular Structures of

Some Hydrocarbon Fuel Families

Fig. 5.2: Flow Diagram for Typical

Petroleum Refinery

Fig. 5.3: Distillation Curve for

Crude Oil.

Distillation Temperatures

30 to 230 C for Gasoline

230 to 370 C for Diesel
Most refineries utilize cracking units
where catalysts at high temperatures
and pressures crack the larger
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones
shifting production towards gasoline.
Fractionating towers allow smaller
molecules to condense out at cooler
temperatures in the upper portion of the
tower.

Ideal Combustion

All of the H in fuel is converted

to H20.
All of the C in fuel is converted
to CO2.
Air is 21% O and 79% N by
volume.

Combustion of Gasoline

Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Mixture

For gasoline

3.51 11.54
A/ F
15.1 : 1
1

Table 5.2: Representative Fuel

Molecules

Fig.1-1 Aliphatic hydrocarbons

Fig.1-2 Alicyclic and aromatic hydrocarbo

Fig. 1-3 Structural formulae for oxygenous hydrocarbons

Fig. (1-4) Boiling graph for gasoline and diesel fuel, as well as kerosene and w

Definition of the octane number (ON) for gasoline fuels

For the determination of ignition performance, we use a so-called
comparison fuel, i.e. a two component fuel consisting of

The octane number is defined as the isooctane fraction of the comparison

Definition of the cetane number (CN) for diesel fuels
In determining ignition performance, we use a comparison fuel,
which is, in this case, a two component fuel composed of:

A fuel can be considered as a finite resource of chemical

potential energy, i.e., energy stored in the molecular
structure of particular compounds that may be released
via complex chemical reactions.
Some of the basic ideal combustion engineering
characteristics of a fuel include:
High energy density (content)
High heat of combustion (release)
Good thermal stability (storage)
Low vapor pressure (volatility)
Nontoxicity (environmental impact)

THE FUEL-ENGINE INTERFACE

Gasoline Engine Exhaust

SI engines are often operated with

rich air/fuel mixtures to produce
more power inadequate oxygen
supply results in production of CO
(not all carbon is converted to CO2).
Even with lean mixtures, CO is still
produced. DO NOT OPERATE
GASOLINE ENGINES IN CONFINED
SPACES!!!

Diesel Air/Fuel Ratios

Stoichiometric air/fuel mixture for CI

engines 14.9:1.
However, most CI engines are
operated with a leaner air/fuel ration
and therefore free oxygen is often
found in the exhaust.

Diesel Engine Exhaust

Small quantities of unburned fuel escape

in gaseous form.
At high temperatures N reacts with O to
form NO and NO2 (together these are
known as NOx).
Federal government has established limits
on CO, NOx and unburned hydrocarbon in
engine exhaust Tier I through IV
Regulations.

Emission Regulations (EPA)

Example 5.1

What is the air/fuel ratio and the

exhaust products when ethanol is
used as an engine fuel?

Solution
C2 H 6O 3O2 11.28 N 2 11.28 N 2 2CO2 3H 2O
1(46) 3(32) 11.28(28) 11.28(28) 2(44) 3(18)
1 2.087 6.866 6.866 1.913 1.174
A / F (2.087 6.866) / 1 8.95

General Combustion Equations

Equations are cast in a form that includes

a measure of richness,

A / Fstoich

A / Factual

where f is the richness term.

General Combustion Equations

The General Combustion Equation is,

C x H y Oz

U
U
U
y
O2 3.76 N 2 3.76 N 2 R CO2 V CO W O2 H 2O

where x, y and z are the relative number of

atoms of C, H and O, respectively; and U, R,
V and W are defined in the following
relationships.

General Combustion Equations

y z
U x
4 2
R x when 1

1
R x 2u 1 when 1

V 0 when 1

1
V 2U 1

1
W U 1

when 1
when 1

W 0 when 1

General Combustion Equations

The actual A/F ratio becomes,

A / Factual

137.3U

12 x y 16 z

General Combustion Equations

The theoretical dry exhaust gas

concentrations (volumetric basis)
become,
3.76U
CONC N 2

T
R
CONCCO2
T
V
CONCCO
T
W
CONCO2
T
3.76U
T
R V W

Blended Fuels

Blended fuels are common for

example blends of 10 % ethanol and
90% gasoline are used to meet EPA
requirements for oxygenated fuels in
regions of the country with impaired
air quality.

Blended Fuels

The composite fuel molecule can be

estimated using,

s fsmp
rs
p f p ms

where the p subscript denotes the primary

fuel, and s the secondary; and variable f is
the faction (decimal form) of either fuel.

Blended Fuels

The resulting composite fuel molecule

becomes,

C xc H yc Ozc
where
xc rs xs xp
yc rs ys yp
zc rs zs zp

Octane Ratings

Octane is a measure of gasolines

resistance to knock.
Knock is the uncontrolled release of
energy when combustion initiates
somewhere other than the spark plug.
Symptoms of engine knock include
an audible knocking or pining
sound under acceleration.

Fig. 5.5: Knock in SI engines.

Causes of Engine Knock

Knock is caused when the temperature

in the cylinder reaches the self ignition
temperature (SIT) of the end gases.
The end gases do not readily ignite,
rather there is an ignition delay
caused by pre-flame reactions.
Engine knock is more prevalent under
conditions that include:

Lean air/fuel ratios

High compression ratios

Methods to Reduce Engine Knock

Use wedge shaped combustion

chambers to cool end gases more
readily.
Use gasoline with higher octane
ratings these ratings are associated
with gasoline that has few straight
chain carbons have longer ignition
delay times.

Octane Rating Measurement

Procedure
developed
by
the
Cooperative
Fuels
Research
Committee (CFR).
The committee proposed a single
cylinder SI engine to measure octane
the CFR engine has an adjustable
compression ratio.
Engine is driven at a constant speed
with an electric motor.

Octane Rating Measurement

Octane ratings are obtained by comparing

fuel in question to iso-octane (Octane Rating
of 100) and heptane (Octane Rating of 100).
CR is adjusted until knocking is detected
with fuel being tested.
Blends of iso-octane and heptane are tested
until the same level of knock is obtained.
Octane rating is % of iso-octane in test blend.

Fig. 5.6: CFR Engine

Octane Ratings

CFR developed initial method (Motor Octane

Number MON).
ASTM developed a new method (Research
Octane Number RON).
RON octane ratings are 8 points low than
MON for most gasoline.
Most retailers report the Anti-Knock Index
which is an average of MON and RON.
Octane ratings of fuel are adjusted for
elevation lower atmospheric pressure
reduces the tendency for engine knock to
occur.

Cetane Ratings and CI Engines

Octane rating is not a good way to

predict knock in CI engines.
Combustion in diesel engines consists of
a two part delay physical and
chemical.
Physical - the fuel is injected and
atomized.
Chemical - process proceeds with a preflame chemical reaction, similar to that
of SI engines.

Fig. 5.7: Critical Compression

Ratios and Temperatures

Combustion Process

Pre-Mix Combustion prepared mixture

burns rapidly after compression ignition.
Diffusion Combustion fuel vapor
diffuses into burn-out zones from one
side while oxygen diffuses from the
other
sustaining
the
combustion
process.
Diffusion process is much slower than
the
pre-mix.
Pre-mix
generate
characteristic diesel rattle.

Fig. 5.8: Energy release from

CI fuels.

Altering Knock in CI Engines

Ignition delay controls the relative

release of energy between the two
phases of combustion a longer
delay results in more energy
produces in the pre-mix phase.
Since knock occurs when more
energy is released at the start of
combustion, it follows that knock is
reduced with short delay periods.

Cetane Ratings

Cetane rating are an indication of the

fuels anti-knock resistance for CI
engines.
Fuels with high cetane ratings are
created by increasing the proportion of
long
chain
molecules,
thereby
reducing the ignition delay.
Fuels with high Octane Rating have
low cetane ratings!

Cetane Ratings

CFR cetane rating process is similar

to the Octane process with a couple
of differences:

Cetane and hyptamethylnonane are the

reference fuels.
Hyptamethylnonane has a cetane rating
of 15.

Effect of Cetane Rating

If cetane rating is too low, the ignition delay

results in hard starting (combustion after piston is
moving downward) and characteristic white
smoke.
High cetane ratings start the combustion process
to soon, and some the fuel is not volatized and
does not burn.
Black smoke in heavily loaded engines is a
symptom of high cetane ratings.
Minimum cetane rating for CI engines is 40
according to SAE.
Commercial fuels seldom exceed 50.
Cetane rating should never exceed 60.

Table 5: limiting values for

diesel fuels.

Fuel Properties

Standards Organizations

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers

ASTM American Society for the Testing
of Materials
API American Petroleum Institute

Specific Gravity

A measure of the density of liquid fuels at 15.6

C as compared with water at the same
temperature.
API devised the following scale,

141.5
API
131.5
SG
o

where SG is the specific gravity.

A hydrometer, calibrated in APIo, is used to
measure the specific gravity.

Fig. 5.9: Fuel hydrometer.

Heating Value of Fuel

Determined using bomb calorimeter.

Bomb calorimeter measures low
heating value void of energy
required to evaporate water.
High heating value is found by
adding
the
latent
heat
of
vaporization of water to low heating
value.

Table 5.4: Properties of selected

fuels.

Heating Value Estimates for

Petroleum Fuels

Heating values are estimated from

the API gravity,
H g 42,860 93 API 10 (kJ / kg )
H n 0.7190 H g 10,000 (kJ / kg )

where Hg is the gross (high) heating

value and Hn is the net (low) heating
value.

Fuel Volatility

Volatility refers to the ability of the fuel

to vaporize at lower temperatures.
Reid vapor pressure and distillation
curves are indicators of fuel volatility.
Reid vapor pressure (RVP) is a
standardized
test
using
bomb
calorimeter at 37.1 C pressure is
measured using a suitable gage.

Fuel Volatility

Prior to 1990 winter gasoline volatility

ranged from 60 to 80 kPa.
Summer gasoline was 10 to 15 kPa
lower to reduce the potential for
vaporization.
Clean Air Act (1990) limits maximum
vapor pressures to 56 kPa in the large
Northern U.S. cities and 49 kPa in large
Southern U.S. cities.

Distillation Tests

100 ml sample is distilled.

Fuel temperature is recorded for first
condensed drop (boiling point), and
then at 10 ml intervals during the
distillation process.
T10, T50 and T90 temperatures are
important to engine characteristics
which include easy of starting, warmup, and crankcase dilution and fuel
economy, respectively.

Fig. 5.10: Fuel distillation

aparataus.

Adjusting Distillation Temperatures

Gasoline sold during the winter must

be more volatile for easy starting in
the winter.
Gasoline sold for use in high
elevations must be less volatile to
avoid vapor lock in the summer.
Volatility is adjusted by adding
butane and lighter hydrocarbons.

Adjusting Distillation Temperatures

For diesel engines:

Low T10 values aids cold weather

starting.
Low T50 values minimize smoke and
odor.
Low T90 values reduce crankcase
dilution and improve fuel economy.

Fig. 5.11: Distillation curves.

Fuel Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of the flow

resistance of liquid.
Fuel viscosity must be high enough
to insure good lubrication of injection
pump mechanisms in CI engines.
Fuel viscosity must be low enough to
insure proper atomization at the time
of injection.

Cloud and Pour Points

Cloud point is the temperature at which

crystals begin to form in the fuel.
Pour point is the temperature at which
the fuel ceases to flow.
Cloud point are typically 5 to 8 C higher
than pour point,
Not an issue for gasoline.
Values are important for diesel.

Fuel Impurities - Sulfur

Sulfur oxides can convert to acids

which corrode engine parts and
cause increased wear.
Assessed by immersing copper strip
in fuel for three hours, then
comparing corrosion to standard
strips.

Fuel Impurities - Ash

Ash small solid particles or watersoluble metals found fuels.

Defined as un-burned fuel residue
left behind.
Can cause accelerated wear of closefitting injection system parts.

Fuel Impurities Water and

Sediment

Moisture can condense in fuel

storage tanks, or seep in from
underground leaks.
Fuel should be bright and clear, and
visibly free of water and sediment.

Fuel Impurities - Gum

Gum can form in gasoline, leaves

behind deposits on carburetors.
Gum is dissolved by gasoline more
prevalent in gasoline that is made by
cracking.
Antioxidants are now added to both
diesel and gasoline to extend storage
life without gum formation.

Fuel Additives

Until 1970, gasoline contained TEL

(tetraethyl lead). TEL was used as
an octane booster.
MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) is
often substituted as an octane
booster

could
be
phased
out/banned by EPA soon.

Table 5.5: Gasoline additives

Fuel Storage

Fuels
classified
according
to
flammability gasoline is more
dangerous with a flash point of -40 C.
Major concern with regard to
environmental contamination

Fig. 5.12: Lubricating Theory

F f f Fn

Fig. 5.13: Action of Journal

Bearings

a) at rest, b) in mixed-film lubrication, and c) in hydrodynamic lubrication

Fig. 5.14: Newtonian Viscosity

v
F A
h

Fig. 5.15: Cannon-Fenske

Viscometer

Reporting of Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity ( ) is reported as,

where m is absolute (or dynamic)

viscosity, and r is the fluid mass
density.

Typical Units

Centipoise (cP) was the popular unit of

dynamic viscosity.

1 cP 1 mPa s

Centistoke (cSt) was the popular unit of

kinematic viscosity.

1 cSt 1 mm / s
2

Table 5.6: SAE Motor Oil

Classification

Motor Oil Service Ratings

S- SERVICE CLASSIFICATIONS FOR GASOLINE ENGINES

SH- For 1994 Gasoline Engine Service -- Classification SH was adopted in
1992 and recommended for gasoline engines in passenger cars and light
trucks starting in 1993 model year. This category supercedes the
performance requirements of API SG specification for 1989-1992 models,
which is now obsolete. Applications that call for an API service classification
SG can use the SH specification. The specification addresses issues with
deposit control, oxidation, corrosion, rust and wear and replaces.
SJ- For 1997 Gasoline Engine Service -- Classification SJ was adopted in
1996 and recommended for gasoline engines in passenger cars and light
trucks starting in 1997 model year. Applications specifying API SH can use
the newer API SJ service classification. Note that where applicable certain
letters in the sequence will be skipped to prevent confusion with other
standards. In this case, SI was skipped since industrial oils are currently
rated according to SI classifications.
SL- For 2001 and Newer Gasoline Engine Service- Current Spec. -Recommended for gasoline engines in passenger cars and light trucks
starting in July 2001. SL oils are engineered to provide improved high
temperature deposit control and lower oil consumption. Applications
specifying API SJ can use the new API SL service classification. Note that
some SL rated oils may also meet the latest ILSAC specification and/or
qualify as energy conserving. SL is the latest specification.

Motor Oil Service Ratings

C- COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATIONS FOR DIESEL ENGINES

CF-For 1994 Off-Road Indirect Injected Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category
CF denotes service typical of off-road, indirect injected diesel engines and other diesel
engines that use a broad range of fuel types, including those using fuel with higher
sulfur content (over 0.5% wt sulfur fuel). Effective control of piston deposits, wear
and corrosion of copper-containing bearings is essential for these engines, which may
be naturally aspirated, turbocharged or supercharged. Oils designated for this service
may also be used when API Service Category CD or CE is recommended. CF is a
current specification.

CF-2- FOR 1994 Severe Duty 2-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine Service -- API Service
Category CF-2 denotes service typical of two-stroke cycle engines (such as Detroit
Diesel) requiring highly effective control over cylinder and ring-face scuffing and
deposits. Oils designated for this service have been in existence since 1994 and may
also be used when API Service Category CD-II is recommended. These oils do not
necessarily meet the requirements of CF or CF-4, unless they pass the test and
performance requirements for these categories. CF-2 is a current specification.

CF-4- For 1990 Diesel Engine Service -- Service typical of severe duty turbocharged, 4stroke cycle diesel engines, particularly late models designed to give lower
emissions. These engines are usually found in on-highway, heavy-duty truck
applications. API CF-4 oils exceed the requirement of CE category oils and can be
used in place of earlier CC, CD and CE oils. CF-4 oils provide for improved control of
piston deposits and oil consumption. The CF-4 classification meets Caterpillars 1k
engine requirements, as well as earlier Mack Trucks (T-6 & T-7) and Cummins (NTC400) multi-cylinder engine test criteria. When combined with the appropriate S
category, they can be used in gasoline and diesel powered cars and light trucks as
specified by the vehicle and/or engine manufacturer.

Motor Oil Service Ratings

CG-4- For 1995 Severe Duty Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category CG-4
describes oils for use in high speed, four-stroke cycle diesel engines used in highway
and off-road applications, where the fuel sulfur content may vary from less than
0.05% by weight to less than 0.5% by weight. CG-4 oils provide effective control over
high temperature piston deposits, wear, corrosion, foaming, oxidation stability and
soot accumulation. These oils are especially effective in engines designed to meet
1994 exhaust emissions standards and may also be used in engines requiring API
Service Categories CD, CE and CF-4. Oils designated for this service have been in
existence since 1995. CG-4 is a current specification
CH-4- For 1999 Severe Duty Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category CH-4
describes oils for use in high speed, four-stroke cycle diesel engines used in highway
and off-road applications. CH-4 oils provide effective control over engine deposits,
wear, corrosion, oxidation stability and soot accumulation. These oils are especially
effective in engines designed to meet 1999 emission standards and may also be used
in engines requiring API Service Category CG-4. Oils designated for this service have
been in existence since 1999. CH-4 oils are engineered for use with diesel fuels
ranging in sulfur content up to 0.5% weight. CH-4 is a current specification.
CL-4- For 2002 Severe Duty Diesel Engine Service -- API Service Category CL-4
describes oils for use in those high speed, four-stroke cycle diesel engines designed to
meet 2004 exhaust emissions standards and was implemented in October 2002.
These oils are engineered for all applications where diesel fuel sulfur content is up to
0.05% by weight. These oils are very effective at sustaining engine durability where
EGR ( Exhaust Gas Recirculation) and other exhaust emissions systems are used and
provide for optimum protection in the areas of corrosive wear, low and high
temperature stability, soot handling properties, piston deposit control, valvetrain
wear, oxidative thickening and foaming and viscosity loss due to shear. API CL-4 oils
are superior in performance to those meeting API-CH-4, CG-4 and CF-4 and can be
used and will effectively lubricate diesel engines specifying those API service
Classifications.

Table 5.8: Lubricating Oil Additives

Fig. 5.16: Pressure-Feed and

Splash Lubrication System.