ME3190 Machine Tools and

Metrology

Metrology

ME3190 Machining & Metrology

Course Outline
Principles of Metal cutting orthogonal and oblique cutting; Shaping, turning, drilling,
milling Machine Tools and their working Process variables; Cutting tools
Nomenclature, Tool life;
Abrasive machining processes grinding, honing, lapping, burnishing and super
finishing Equipment, process variables and surface features; Surface integrity
concepts.
Introduction to NC and CNC Concepts and programming Constructional features of
various machine tools: Introduction to CIM.
Metrology: Fundamentals of Measurement, Errors, Length Standards, Gauging,
Comparators, Fits and Tolerances; Role of metrology in quality assurance; Linear and
angular measurements; Optical metrology and laser interferometry; Slip gauges; Form
measurements

Flatness,
Straightness,
Form
errors; Surface
finish
measurements; Coordinate
measuring
machines; Vision
applications
in
Metrology; Nano measurements.

Reference Books
N. V. Raghvendra and L. Krishnamurthy, Engineering Metrology and
Measurements, Oxford Publication.
Hume, K.J., Engineering Metrology, Macdonald, 1960.
Parsons, S.A.J. Metrology and Gauging, Macdonald and Evans, 1964.
Thomas, G.G., Engineering Metrology, Butterworth, 1974.
Anthony, D.M. Engineering Metrology, Pergamon Press, First Edition, 1986.
Shotbolt, C.S. and Galyer. J. Metrology for Engineers, Cassell Publ., Fifth Edition,
1990.

Engineering
Metrology and
Measurements
N.V. Raghavendra
L. Krishnamurthy

Hume, K.J., Engineering Metrology, Macdonald, 1960.

Shotbolt, C.S. and Galyer. J. Metrology for Engineers, Cassell Publ.,

Fifth Edition, 1990

Metrology
Sl. No

Topics

Lecture Hours

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Fundamentals of Measurement, Errors, Length

Standards
Principle of Gauging
Comparators
Fits and Tolerances
Role of metrology in quality assurance
Slip Gauges
Linear measurment
Angular measurment
Laser interferometer
Form errors - Fundamentals
Straightness
Flatness
Surface finish measurement
CMM
Machine vision in metrology
Nanomeasurments
Total

2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
20-25

Learning Objectives of Metrology portion

To understand the role of metrology in manufacturing and
its value addition
To learn about measurement concepts and sources of error
in measurement
To learn methods of measurement and evaluation for
dimensions, form and finish of manufactured components
To learn and appreciate the usefulness of Manufacturing
metrology

Metrology Introduction
What is Metrology?

Why do you need Metrology?

What is Metrology?
Metrology is the science of measurement
The Science Behind Quality Control IN A Manufacturing Shop Floor

Metrology is the science of measurement, embracing both experimental

and theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of
science and technology. International Bureau of Weights and
measurements (BIPM)

Why do you need Metrology ?

The purpose of engineering design is to convey information in a way that makes it
as easy as possible for the manufacturing team to create the desired parts and
assemblies.
The design intent
The people and processes involved in manufacturing
The inspection and verification process

Benefits
Quality - Good engineering drawings result in parts that match the design intent.
Budget - Getting a drawing right the first time saves money.
Time - When dimensions and tolerances are stated clearly and thoroughly,
manufacturers do not need to take the time to ask questions or get clarification.
Customer satisfaction - Producing the correct results in a timely manner keeps
customers happy.

Why you need Metrology ?

It is the technology behind the quality assurance processes in
manufacturing
Verifying and validating the design specifications
National and international trade increasingly require demonstrated conformity to
written standards and specications with mutual recognition of measurements
and tests, i.e. worldwide traceability of measurement results to the SI

Assessing the capability of machine tool and controlling the

manufacturing process
Economic success of most manufacturing industries is critically dependent on how
well products are made, a requirement in which measurement plays a key role.

An individuals life journey begins with

measurement and end with measurement

Why do you need

Metrology?
Measurements provide a basis for judgements about
process information, quality assurance, and process
control
Measurement is a significant source for acquiring
very important and necessary data about both these
aspects of engineering, without which the function
or analysis cannot be performed properly
Measurements are required for assessing the
performance of a product/system, performing
analysis to ascertain the response to a specific input
function, studying some fundamental principle or
law of nature, etc

Why do you need Metrology?

(Contd)
The Quality of Mirror
Hubble's
mirrors
are
expected to be very smooth
and should have precisely
shaped reflecting surfaces.
They are manufactured by
grinding
(shaped
by
removing
glass
with
abrasives) so that their
surfaces do not deviate from
a perfect curve by more than
1/800,000ths of an inch.

 Shortly after Hubble's

deployment in 1990,
scientists found that the
curve to which the
primary
mirror
was
ground was incorrect by
few microns (about 1/10
the thickness of hair),
causing
spherical
aberration.
Due to this the quality
of the pictures taken by
the telescope were of

Picture of a galaxy taken by

Hubble Telescope before
rectification

This problem was rectified after a

Space Walk spending millions of
dollars

Picture of a galaxy

Before rectification

After rectification

Areas of Application
of
Metrology

Manufacturing Industry
Dimensional inspection
Quality control

Space Stations, Satellites

Metrology laboratories test standards for many
companies that provide parts of the space
shuttle
These parts include the metal, heat shield,
electronics, fabrics, o-rings, optics, and tires

Defence Industry
Metrology laboratories test standards for
many military and defense companies

These companies make the guidance

systems for the Patriot missiles and
other things that are top secret

Pharmaceutical Industry
Metrology laboratories test weights and
volume

standards

for

pharmaceutical

companies

Products include medicines like aspirin,

antibiotics, vaccines, insulin, & vitamins

Types of Metrology
Scientific Metrology
Legal Metrology
Industrial Metrology

Scientific Metrology
Organization
and
development
of
measurement
standards and their
maintenance
(highest level)

NIST Atomic Clock

Accurate to 1 s in 20 million years

STANDARDS OF
MEASUREMENTS
In A.D. 1120 the king of England decreed that the
standard of length in his country would be named
the yard and would be precisely equal to the
distance from the tip of his nose to the end of his
outstretched arm.
Similarly, the original standard for the foot adopted
by the French was the length of the royal foot of
King Louis XIV.
This standard prevailed until 1799, when the legal
standard of length in France became the meter,
defined as one ten-millionth the distance from the
equator to the North Pole along one particular
longitudinal line that passes through Paris.

The
yardstick
(Henry I,
thumb to
nose)

British Standards/Imperial
Standard

Legal Metrology

Legal Metrology applies to any application of metrology that is

subjected to national laws or regulations.
There will be mandatory and legal bindings on the units and
methods of measurements and measuring instruments.
The scope of legal metrology may vary considerably from one
country to another. The main objective is to maintain uniformity
of measurement in a particular country.
Legal metrology ensures the conservation of national standards
and guarantees their accuracy in comparison with the
international standards, thereby imparting proper accuracy to the
secondary standards of the country.

Applications of Legal
Metrology
Applications of legal metrology are
industrial measurement, commercial
transactions and public health and
human safety aspects.

Industrial Metrology
Adequate functioning of measurement
instruments used in industry as well as
production and testing processes

Role of Metrology in Manufacturing

Factors Effecting Part Accuracy

Workpiece

Machine & Control

system design

Tool

Machine work
zone Accuracy

Part Accuracy

Environmental
Effects

Operating
methods

Important Terms in Measurement

Resolution
It is the minimum value that can be
measured when the instrument is
gradually increased from non-zero value

Precision
It is the degree of agreement of
the repeated measurements of a
quantity made by using the same
method, under similar conditions.
Precision is the repeatability of the
measuring process.

The
ability
of
the
measuring
instrument to repeat the same results
during the act of measurements for
the same quantity is known as
repeatability.
Repeatability is random in nature and,
by itself, does not assure accuracy,
though it is a desirable characteristic.

Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree of agreement
of the measured dimension with its
true magnitude
Accuracy can also be defined as the
maximum amount by which the
result differs from true value or as
the nearness of the measured values
to its true value often expressed as a
percentage

True value may be defined as the mean

of the infinite number of measured
values when the average deviation due
to the various contributing factors tends
to zero

Accuracy and Precision

Reproducibility
The degree of closeness with which a
given value may be repeatedly measured
under different conditions.

Inspection
Inspection is defined as a
procedure in which a part or
product characteristic, such
as a dimension, is examined
to determine whether it
conforms to the design
specification.
In inspection, the part either
passes
or
fails.
Thus,
industrial inspection has
become a very important
aspect of quality control.

Measurement
Measurement encompasses different
fields such as communications, energy,
medical
sciences,
food
sciences,
environment, trade, transportation,
and military applications
Measurement is an act of assigning an
accurate and precise value to a
physical variable
The physical variable then gets
transformed into a measured variable
Meaningful measurements require
common measurement standards and
must be performed using them
Measurements provide a basis for
judgements about process information,
quality assurance, and process control

Measuring Instrument Types

Angle measuring Instruments: e.g. Angle gauges;
Divided scales; Sine bar with slip gauges; Autocollimator;
and Tool Maker Microscope.
Length measuring Instruments: ex: Steel rule; Caliper;
Micrometer; and comparators.
Instruments for surface finish: surface roughness
measurements.
Instruments for deviations: Coordinate Measuring
Machine (CMM).

Important Terms in Measurement

Gauging:
It is not measurement, but a form of inspection and sorting.

Feeler Gauge

Slip Gauges

Wire Gauge

GAGE Blocks

They are a necessity in any testing environment that requires

linear dimensional accuracy and/or calibration of measuring
tools, such as micrometers and calipers.

They are precision ground and lapped measuring standards.

They are used as references for the setting of measuring
equipment such as micrometers, sine bars, dial indicators (when
used in an inspection role).

Gage blocks are manufactured to precise gage-maker tolerance

grades for calibrating, checking, and setting fixed and
comparative gages.

Tolerance
The two extremes within which an actual
part dimension must lie

Calibration of Measuring
Instruments

Calibration is the procedure used to establish a

relationship between the values of the quantities
indicated by the measuring instrument and the
corresponding values realized by standards under
specified conditions. It
If the values of the variable involved remain constant
(not time dependent) while calibrating a given
instrument, this type of calibration is known as Static
calibration,
If the value is time dependent or time-based information
is required, it is called Dynamic calibration.

Measurement Errors
Measurement Error
Systematic Error

Consistent,
repeatable
errors

Calibration errors
Loading errors
Spatial Errors
Human Errors

Random Error

Unrepeatable,
inconsistent errors,

Systematic Errors

A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed

amount from the true value of measurement.
These types of errors are controllable in both their magnitude and
their direction.
These types of errors can be assessed and minimized if efforts
are made to analyze them. The following are the reasons for their
occurrence.
Calibration errors
Ambient conditions
Deformation of work piece and
Avoidable errors

Random Errors
Random Errors
Random errors provide a measure of random deviations
when measurements of a physical quantity are carried
out repeatedly.
When a series of repeated measurements are made on a
component under similar conditions, the values or results
of measurements vary.
They are of variable magnitude and may be either
positive or negative.

Random Errors (Contd)

The figure clearly depicts the relationship between systematic and

random errors with respect to the measured value.

Sources of Random Errors

The following are the likely sources of random
errors:
Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the
measuring instrument
Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments
Error in operators judgment in reading the fractional
part of engraved scale divisions.
Operators inability to note the readings because of
fluctuations during measurement.
Positional errors associated with the measured object
and standard, arising due to small variations in

Difference between Systematic and

Random errors

Other Sources of Errors

Zero Error: The instrument does not read zero

when the input is zero. Zero error is a type of
bias error that offsets all measurements taken
by the instrument, but can usually be corrected
by some kind of zero offset adjustment.

Other Sources of Errors

Linearity Error: The output deviates from the calibrated linear

relationship between the input and the output. Linearity error is a type of
bias error, but unlike zero error, the degree of error varies with the
magnitude of the reading

Other Sources of Errors

Sensitivity Error: The slope of the output vs. input curve is not calibrated
exactly in the first place. Since this affects all readings by the instrument,
this is a type of systematic or bias error.

Other Sources of Errors

Resolution Error: The output precision is
limited to discrete steps (e.g., if one reads
to the nearest millimeter on a ruler, the
resolution error is around +/- 1 mm).
Resolution error is a type of random or
precision error.

Other Sources of Errors

Hysteresis Error: The output is different, depending on whether the

input is increasing or decreasing at the time of measurement. This is
a separate error from instrument repeatability error.

Other Sources of Errors

Instrument Repeatability Error: The
instrument gives a different output, when
the input returns to the same value. The
reasons for the differences and the
procedure to get to that value are usually
random, so instrument repeatability error
is a type of random error.

Other Sources of Errors

Drift Error: The output changes (drifts) from its correct value, even though
the input remains constant. Drift error can often be seen in the zero
reading, which may fluctuate randomly due to electrical noise and other
random causes, or it can drift higher or lower (zero drift) due to nonrandom
causes, such as a slow increase in air temperature in the room. Thus, drift
error can be either random or systematic.

Other Sources of Error

Parallax: This error can occur whenever there is some distance between
the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain a measurement. If the
observer's eye is not squarely aligned with the pointer and scale, the
reading may be too high or low (some analog meters have mirrors to help
with this alignment).

Other Sources of Errors

Environmental factors: Be aware of errors introduced by your

immediate working environment. You may need to take account for or
protect your experiment from vibrations, drafts, changes in temperature,
electronic noise or other effects from nearby apparatus.

Reading Error: describes such factors as parallax, interpolation, or

optical resolution.

Loading Error: results from the change of the measurement instrument

when it is being used.

Effect of support.

Dirt.

Length Standards
Two standard systems of
measurement in general use:

linear

English
Metric

Metric system originated in France

and has now become predominant
and exclusively used in Europe,
Russia and the developing countries
of India and China
The English system of yards, feet
and inches is used in Britain, the
Commonwealth and the USA for
commerce, industry and engineering
Its use throughout the world is
declining as compared to the metric
system

History of Metre and Yard

Upto 1960, the metre standard was a line

standard, known as the International
Prototype Meter, made in a platinum
iridium alloy and having a cross section
designed
Tresca
The by
upper
surface of the web lies in
the neutral plane of the bar and
the defining lines are engraved on
it
A line standard is a length defined
by the distance between two
engraved lines observed through
microscopes
In 1792,
the first metric standard, known as the Mtre des
Archives was established
In 1872, an international commission was set up in Paris to decide
on a more suitable metric standard

Definitions
Metre: The Metre is defined as
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the
orange radiation in vacuum of the
krypton-86 isotope
Yard: The Yard is defined as 0.9144
metre which is equivalent to
1,509,458.35 wavelengths of the
krypton-86 isotope