Fourier Optics

Chapter-1
Presented by
Lokesh Reddy B

Introduction
Optical system exhibits a property
called spatial coherence i.e. two
wave sources are perfectly coherent
if they have a constant phase
difference and the same frequency
Spatial distribution complex valued
field amplitude
Spatial
coherence
Real-valued
intensity

1. Signals and systems

Signal:
A signal is a physical quantity that
varies with time, space or any other
independent
variable.by
which
information can be conveyed
System:
ASystemis any physical set of
components that takes a signal, and
produces a signal.

2. Fourier Transform
Main Idea:
Any periodic function can be decomposed
into a summation of sines and cosines
Ex: complex function f(x)=sin(x)
+1/3.sin(2x)+1/5.sin(4x)
Why FT?
Mathematically easier to analyze effects of
transmission medium, noise etc on simple
sine functions then add to get effect on
complex signal

Cont
Its a mathematical tool in the
analysis of both linear and
nonlinear phenomena is Fourier
transform
FT is for non-periodic or aperiodic
signals
Reverse link between time and
frequency domain

Cont
When increase time period of square
or rectangular wave, fundamental
frequency decreases and magnitude
reduces
As T then f=0,mag=0,density

FT in 2-D analysis
The Fourier transform (alternatively the Fourier
spectrum or frequency spectrum) of a (in
general, complex-valued) function g of two
independent variables x and y will be
represented here by F{g} and is defined by

The transform so defined is itself a complexvalued function of two independent variables fx

and fy, which we generally called as frequencies

Cont
Similarly, the inverse Fourier
transform of a function G(fx, fy) will
be represented by F-1{G} and is
defined as

Existence Conditions for FT

Existence Conditions for FT

Consider an aperiodic signal x(t). Its
Fourier Transform exists (i.e the
Transform integral converges) and
converges to x(t), except at points of
discontinuity provided
1) x(t) must be absolutely integrable
over the infinite x plane or (x,y) 2Dplane

Cont
2) x(t) must have only a finite number of
discontinuities and a finite number of
maxima and minima in any finite rectangle
For example, x(t)=sin(1/t) does not satisfy
this condition
3) x(t) has only a finite number of
discontinuities in any finite interval. For
example the following function (the so called
Dirichlet's function ) will not satisfy this
condition

Cont
Above These 3 conditions satisfied,
will converge to x(t) i.e inverse FT
at all points of continuity of x(t).
At points of discontinuity of x(t),this
integral converges to the average of
the left hand limit and the right hand
limit of x(t) at that point

Fourier Transform Theorems

1. Linearity:
. Functions g(x,y) and h(x,y) is said to
be linearity if and only F{a.g + b.h}
= a.F{g) + b.F{h}
. i.e. the transform of a weighted sum
of two (or more) functions is simply
the identically weighted sum of their
individual transforms.

2.Similarity theorem
If F{g(x, y)) = G( fx, fy), then
F{g(ax, by)) =
that is, a "stretch" of the
coordinates in the space domain (x,
y) results in a contraction of the
coordinates in the frequency domain
( fx, fy), plus a change in the overall
amplitude of the spectrum.

Cont Proof

3.Shift Theorem
If F{g(x, y)} = G( fx, fy), then

that is, translation in the space

domain introduces a linear phase
shift in the frequency domain

ContProof

4.Rayleighs or
parsevals Theorem
If F{g(x, y)} = G( fx, fy), then

The integral on the left-hand side of this

theorem can be interpreted as the energy
contained in the waveform g(x, y). This in
turn leads us to the idea that the quantity
IG( fx, fy)I2 can be interpreted as an
energy density in the frequency domain.

Cont Proof

5.Convolution theorem
If F{g(x, y)) = G( fx, fy) and F{h(x, y)} = H( fx,
fy), then

The convolution of two functions in the space

domain (an operation that will be found to
arise frequently in the theory of linear
systems) is entirely equivalent to the more
simple operation of multiplying their individual
transforms and inverse transforming

Cont Proof

6.Autocorrelation
theorem
If F{g(x, y)} = G( fx, fy), then

Similarly,

This theorem may be regarded as a

special case of the convolution theorem in
which we convolve g(x, y) with g*(-x, -y).

ContProof

7.Fourier Integral
Theorem
At each point of continuity of g,

At each point of discontinuity of g, the two

successive transforms yield the angular
average of the values of g in a small
neighborhood of that point. That is, the
successive
transformation
and
inverse
transformation of a function yields that function
again, except at points of discontinuity

Separable functions
A function of two independent
variables is called separable with
respect to a specific coordinate
system if it can be written as a
product of two functions, each of
which depends on only one of the
independent variables. The function
g is separable in rectangular
coordinates (x, y) if

Cont
while it is separable in polar
coordinates (r, ) if
Separability often allows complicated
two-dimensional manipulations to be
reduced to more simple onedimensional manipulations.

Cont
Thus the transform of g is itself separable into a
product of two factors, one a function of fx only
and the second a function of fy only, and the
process
of
two-dimensional
transformation
simplifies to a succession of more familiar onedimensional manipulations.
Functions separable in polar coordinates are not so
easily handled as those separable in rectangular
coordinates, but it is still generally possible to
demonstrate that two-dimensional manipulations
can be performed by a series of one-dimensional
manipulations.

Frequently used
functions
1.Rectangular function

Cont
2. Sinc function

Cont
3. Signum function

Cont
4. Triangle Function

Cont
5. Dirac comb function

Cont
6. Circle Function

Cont

Spatial Frequency and Space

Frequency localization
Each Fourier component of a function is a
complex exponential of a unique spatial
frequency. As such, every frequency
component extends over the entire (x, y)
domain.
we consider the general case of complexvalued functions, which we will later see
represent the amplitude and phase
distributions of monochromatic optical
waves.

Cont
It can be represented as
where a(x, y) is a real and nonnegative
amplitude distribution, while (x, y) is a
real phase distribution
assume that the amplitude distribution
a(x, y) is a slowly varying function of (x,
y), so that we can concentrate on the
behavior of the phase function (x, y).

Cont
We define the local spatial frequency
of the function g as a frequency pair
(flx, fly) given by

In addition, both flx and flY are

defined to be zero in regions where
the function g(x, y)
vanishes(dissapears).

Cont
Consider the result of applying these definitions to
the particular complex function
representing a simple linear-phase exponential of
frequencies ( fx, fy). We obtain

Thus we see that for the case of a single Fourier

component, the local frequencies really reduce to
the frequencies of that component, and those
frequencies are constant over the entire (x, y) plane

Cont
Next consider a space-limited version
of a quadratic-phase exponential
function. which we call a "finite
chirp" function
Performing the differentiations called
for by the definitions of local
frequencies, we find that they can be
expressed as

Cont
In this case the local spatial frequencies
do depend on location in the (x, y) plane;
within a rectangle of dimensions 2Lx*2Ly,
flx varies linearly with the x-coordinate
while flY varies linearly with the ycoordinate.
Thus for this function (and for most
others) there is a dependence of local
spatial frequency on position in the (x, y)
plane.

Cont
The Fourier transform of this function
is given by the expression

This expression is separable in

rectangular coordinates, so it suffices
to find the one dimensional spectrum

Cont
Completing the square in the
exponent and making a change of
variables of integration from x to t
yields

This integral can be expressed in

terms of tabulated functions, the
Fresnel integrals, which are defined
by

Cont
The spectrum Gx can then be expressed as

When the local spatial frequencies of the complex

amplitude of a coherent optical wavefront are
found, they correspond to the ray directions of the
geometrical optics description of that wavefront

Sampling theorem
The sampling theorem applies to the class of band-limited functions,
by which we mean functions with Fourier transforms that are nonzero
over only a finite region R of the frequency space.
It is often convenient, both for data processing and for mathematical
analysis purposes, to represent a function g(x, y) by an array of its
sampled values taken on a discrete set of points in the (x, y) plane.
Intuitively, it is clear that if these samples are taken sufficiently
close to each other, the sampled data are an accurate representation
of the original function, in the sense that g can be reconstructed with
considerable accuracy by simple interpolation.
It is a less obvious fact that for a particular class of functions (known
as bandlimited functions) the reconstruction can be accomplished
exactly, provided only that the interval between samples is not
greater than a certain limit.
This result was originally pointed out by Whittaker and was later
popularized byShannon in his studies of information theory

Cont
we consider a rectangular lattice of
samples of the function g.
The sampled function g, thus
consists of an array of S functions,
spaced at intervals of width X in the
x direction and width Y in the y
direction

Cont
The area under each function is
proportional to the value of the
function g at that particular point in
the rectangular sampling lattice
As implied by the convolution
theorem, the spectrum Gs of g, can
be found by convolving the transform
of comb(x/X) comb(y/Y) with the
transform of g, or

Cont
where the * again indicates that a
two-dimensional convolution is to be
performed

Cont
Since the function g is assumed to be
bandlimited, its spectrum G is nonzero
over only a finite region R of the
frequency space. As implied by above eq
the region over which the spectrum of
the sampled function is nonzero can be
found by constructing the region R about
each point (n/X, m/Y) in the frequency
plane

Cont
Thus the recovery of the original
spectrum G from Gs can be accomplished
exactly by passing the sampled function
g, through a linear invariant filter that
transmits the term (n = 0, m = 0) of
above eq without distortion, while
perfectly excluding all other terms.
Thus, at the output of this filter we find an
exact replica of the original data g(x, y).

 to successfully recover the original data it

is necessary to take samples close enough
together to enable separation of the
various spectral regions of Gs.
To determine the maximum allowable
separation between samples, let 2Bx and
2By represent the widths in the fx and fy
directions, respectively, of the smallest
rectangle that completely encloses the
region R

Cont
the various terms in the spectrum
above eq of the sampled data are
separated by distances 1/X and 1/Y
in the fx and fy directions,
respectively,
separation
of
the
spectral regions is assured
The maximum spacings of the
sampling lattice for exact recovery of
the original function

Cont.
The exact recovery of G from Gs is
seen by noting that the spectrum of
the output of such a filter is

Cont

Cont
Finally, when the sampling intervals X and Y are taken to
have their maximum allowable values, the identity
becomes

result which we shall refer to as the Whittaker-Shannon

sampling theorem, It implies that exact recovery of a
band-limited function can be achieved from an
appropriately spaced rectangular array of its sampled
values; the recovery is accomplished by injecting, at each
sampling point, an interpolation function consisting of a
product of sinc functions, where each interpolation
function is weighted according to the sampled value of g
at the corresponding point.

Space Bandwidth
Product
If g(x, y) is bandlimited and indeed has significant
value over only a finite region of the (x, y) plane,
then it is possible to represent g with good
accuracy by a finite number of samples. If g is of
significant value only in the region - Lx < x < Lx,
-Ly <y < Ly,
and if g is sampled, in accord with the sampling
theorem, on a rectangular lattice with spacing's
(2Bx)-1, (2BY)-1i n the x and y directions,
respectively, then the total number of significant
samples required to represent g(x, y) is seen to be

Cont
which we call the space-bandwidth product of
the function g. The space-bandwidth product
can be regarded as the number of degrees of
freedom of the given function
If the function is approximately space-limited
and approximately band-limited, then a
rectangle (size 2Bx X 2By) within which most of
the spectrum is contained can be defined in the
frequency domain, and a rectangle (size 2Lx x
2Ly) within which most of the function is
contained can be defined in the space domain.
The space-bandwidth product of the function is
then approximately given by above equation

Fourier Space in microscopy

Cont.

Pure sine wave

Pure sine wave-frequency

Cont

Pure sine wave-amplitude

Cont

Pure sine wave-Phase

Cont

Cont

Pure sine wave-Phase

Summing spatial frequency

Cont

Cont