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AP Physics Heat and Thermodynamics Chapter 11 and 12
AP Physics Heat and Thermodynamics Chapter 11 and 12
Thermodynamics
1. Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that is built upon
the fundamental laws that heat and work obey.
2. THERMODYMANICS
Thermodynamics is the study
of the motion of heat energy
as it is transferred from the
system to the surrounding or
from the surrounding to the
system.
The transfer of heat could be due to a
physical change or a chemical
change.
There are three laws of chemical
thermodynamics.
CHEMICAL
THERMODYMANICS
3. The first law of thermodynamics:
Energy and matter can be neither created nor destroyed; only
transformed from one form to another. The energy and matter
of the universe is constant.
4. The second law of thermodynamics:
In any spontaneous process there is always an increase in the
entropy of the universe. The entropy is increasing.
5. The third law of thermodynamics:
The entropy of a perfect crystal at 0 K is zero.
There is no molecular motion at absolute 0 K.
6. HEAT
Symbolized by "q".
A. When heat is evolved by a system,
energy is lost and "q is negative (-).
B. When heat is absorbed by the system,
the energy is added and "q" is positive (+).
HEAT FLOW
Heat can flow in one of two directions:
a. Exothermic
To give off heat; energy is lost from the
system: (-q)
b. Endothermic
To absorb heat; energy is added to the
system: (+q)
HEAT OF REACTION
The heat energy (H; enthalpy) required to
return a system to the given temperature at
the completion of the reaction.
q = H at constant pressure
The heat of reaction can be specific to a reaction like:
HEAT OF COMBUSTION
The quantity of heat energy given off when a
specified amount of substance burns in
oxygen.
UNITS: kJ/mol (kilojoules per mole) or kcal/mol (kilocalories per mole)
q = Cp T
8. SPECIFIC HEAT: The quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one degree Celsius (or one
Kelvin).
q = s x m x T
s= c- specific heat
Both Cp & s are chemical specific constants found in the textbook or CRC
Handbook.
SPECIFIC HEAT
-qhot = qcold
-mh x sh x Th = mc x sc x Tc
where T = Tfinal - Tinitial
-mh x sh x Th = mc x sc x Tc
- (100.0g) (1 cal/goC) (12.0-97.6oC) = m (1 cal/goC) (12.0 - 0.0 oC)
m = 713 g
Calculate the specific heat of an unknown metal if a 92.00 g piece
at 100.0oC is dropped into 175.0 mL of water at 17.8 oC. The final
temperature of the mixture was 39.4 oC.
CW 1: Heat PROBLEMS
1. Iron metal has a specific heat of 0.449 J/g oC. How much heat is
transferred to a 5.00 g piece of iron, initially at 20.0 oC, when it is placed
in a beaker of boiling water at 1 atm?
180. J
2. How many calories of energy are given off to lower the temperature of
100.0 g of iron from 150.0 oC to 35.0 oC?
3. If 3.47 kJ were absorbed by 75.0 g H 2O at 20.0 oC, what would be the final
temperature of the water?
31.1 oC
4. A 100. g sample of water at 25.3 oC was placed in a calorimeter. 45.0 g of
lead shots (at 100 oC) was added to the calorimeter and the final
temperature of the mixture was 34.4 oC. What is the specific heat of
lead?
1.28 J/g oC
5. A 17.9 g sample of unknown metal was heated to 48.31 oC. It was then
added to 28.05 g of water in an insulted cup. The water temperature rose
from 21.04 oC to 23.98oC. What is the specific heat of the metal in J/g oC?
0.792 J/goC
HW HEAT PROBLEM
Absolute Zero
Absolute Zero
15. Absolute zero is the temperature at which no more energy
can be extracted from a substance.
At absolute zero, no further lowering of its temperature is
possible.
This temperature is 273 degrees below zero on the Celsius scale.
Absolute Zero
The absolute temperatures of various
objects and phenomena.
Absolute Zero
think!
A sample of hydrogen gas has a temperature of 0C. If the
gas is heated until its molecules have doubled their average
kinetic energy (the gas has twice the absolute temperature),
what will be its temperature in degrees Celsius?
21
22
U = Q- W = 10J -0 = 10J
31
32
CW Internal Energy
Positive and Negative Work
33
34
(b)
35
CW 2: on 1st Law of
Thermodynamics
40
The substance in
the chamber is
expanding
isobarically
because the
pressure is held
constant by the
external
atmosphere and
the weight of the
piston and the
block.
41
20.
Isobaric Expansion of Water
One gram of water is placed in the cylinder in above figure, and
the pressure is maintained at 2.0 105 Pa. The temperature of the
water is raised by 31 C. In one case, the water is in the liquid
phase and expands by the small amount of 1.0 108 m3. In
another case, the water is in the gas phase and expands by the
much greater amount of 7.1 105 m3. For the water in each case,
find (a) the work done and (b) the change in the internal energy.
(a)
(b)
43
46
Adiabatic Processes
When a gas is compressed or expanded so that no heat enters
or leaves a system, the process is said to be adiabatic.
Adiabatic Processes
Do work on a pump by
pressing down on the
piston and the air is
warmed.
Adiabatic Processes
Blow warm air onto your hand from your wide-open mouth. Now reduce
the opening between your lips so the air expands as you blow. Adiabatic
expansionthe air is cooled.
Adiabatic Processes
A common example of a near-adiabatic process is the compression and
expansion of gases in the cylinders of an automobile engine.
Compression and expansion occur in only a few hundredths of a
second, too fast for heat energy to leave the combustion chamber.
For very high compressions, like those in a diesel engine, the
temperatures are high enough to ignite a fuel mixture without a spark
plug.
Diesel engines have no spark plugs.
Adiabatic Processes
Adiabatic Processes
When a gas adiabatically expands, it does work on its surroundings
and gives up internal energy, and thus becomes cooler.
Adiabatic Processes
Heat and Temperature
Air temperature may be changed by adding or subtracting heat,
by changing the pressure of the air, or by both.
Heat may be added by solar radiation, by long-wave Earth radiation,
by condensation, or by contact with the warm ground.
Heat may be subtracted by radiation to space, by evaporation of rain
falling through dry air, or by contact with cold surfaces.
Adiabatic Processes
For many atmospheric processes, the amount of heat added or
subtracted is small enough that the process is nearly adiabatic.
In this case, an increase in pressure will cause an increase in
temperature, and vice versa.
We then have the adiabatic form of the first law:
Change in air temperature ~ pressure change
Adiabatic Processes
Pressure and Temperature
Adiabatic processes in the atmosphere occur in large masses of air
that have dimensions on the order of kilometers.
Well call these large masses of air blobs.
As a blob of air flows up the side of a mountain, its pressure lessens,
allowing it to expand and cool.
The reduced pressure results in reduced temperature.
Explain : Pressure
1.High Altitude
2. Low Altitude
Answer:
Zero efficiency; (400 - 400)/400 = 0. This means no work
output is possible for any heat engine unless a temperature
difference exists between the reservoir and the sink.
Under ideal conditions, 25% of the internal energy of the steam can
become work, while the remaining 75% is expelled as waste.
Increasing operating temperature to 600 K yields an efficiency of
(600 300)/600 = 1/2, twice the efficiency at 400 K.
2. Calculate an
ideal efficiency of a
steam turbine that
has a hot reservoir
of 127 C high
pressure steam
and a sink of 27C .
Under ideal conditions, 25% of the internal energy of the steam can
become work, while the remaining 75% is expelled as waste.
Increasing operating temperature to 600 K yields an efficiency of
(600 300)/600 = 1/2, twice the efficiency at 400 K.
Vocabulary :
New words and
definition
24.7 Entropy
24.7 Entropy
25. Entropy is the measure of the amount of disorder in a
system.
Disorder increases; entropy increases.
24.7 Entropy
When a physical system can distribute its energy freely, entropy increases
and energy of the system available for work decreases.
24.7 Entropy
This run-down house demonstrates entropy. Without continual
maintenance, the house will eventually fall apart.
24.7 Entropy
For the system life forms plus their
waste products there is still a net
increase in entropy.
Energy must be transformed into the
living system to support life. When it is
not, the organism soon dies and tends
toward disorder.
24.7 Entropy
Even the most improbable states may occur, and entropy spontaneously
decrease:
haphazard motions of air molecules could momentarily become
harmonious in a corner of the room
a barrel of pennies dumped on the floor could
show all heads
a breeze might come into a messy room and
make it organized
The odds of these things occurring are infinitesimally small.
24.7 Entropy
The motto of this contractorIncreasing entropy is our
businessis appropriate because by knocking down the building,
the contractor increases the disorder of the structure.
24.7 Entropy
The laws of thermodynamics are sometimes put this way:
You cant win (because you cant get any more energy out of a
system than you put in).
You cant break even (because you cant even get as much energy
out as you put in).
You cant get out of the game (entropy in the universe is always
increasing).
24.7 Entropy
Experiment :
Heat
I. Purpose :
To determine the total amount of Heat
involved in the process of Mixture using Q=
mcT
Q= mhV or Q= mhf using
II. Materials :
graduated cylinder
10 ml of water
ice cube
plates
beaker
thermometer
Triple beam balance
III. Procedures
Mass,
g
M1
Water
Mass,
g
M2
Ice
cube
Ti initial
temperature.
water
Tf final
temperature,
Mixture when
The ice melted
Q= m1cT
water
Q= m2hf
ice
Q = m2cT
Melted ice
Total Q
V. Calculations
Using equations
Q= mcT
Q= mhf
116
= +180 J
117
a.
Positive
Negative
Negative
b.
Positive
Positive
Negative
c.
Negative
Negative
Positive
d.
Positive
Negative
Zero
e.
Negative
Positive
Zero
(b)
119
120
121
Example 5.
Isothermal Expansion of an Ideal Gas
Two moles of the monatomic gas argon expand isothermally at
298 K, from an initial volume of Vi = 0.025 m3 to a final volume of
Vf = 0.050 m3. Assuming that argon is an ideal gas, find (a) the
work done by the gas, (b) the change in the internal energy of the
gas, and (c) the heat supplied to the. gas.
(a)
(b)
(c)
122
123
[Ti = PiVi/(nR)]
[Tf = PfVf/(nR)].
124
Type of Thermal
Process
Work Done
Isobaric (constant
pressure)
W = P(Vf Vi)
Isochoric (constant
volume)
W = 0 J
Isothermal
(constant
temperature)
Adiabatic (no heat
flow)
First Law of
Thermodynamics
(U = Q W)
126
127
128
129
130
Heat Engines
A heat engine is any device that uses heat to perform work. It
has three essential features:
1.Heat is supplied to the engine at a relatively high input
temperature from a place called the hot reservoir.
2.Part of the input heat is used to perform work by the working
substance of the engine, which is the material within the engine
that actually does the work (e.g., the gasoline-air mixture in an
automobile engine).
3.The remainder of the input heat is rejected to a place called
the cold reservoir, which has a temperature lower than the
input temperature.
131
132
133
134
A Carnot engine is a
reversible engine in which
all input heat QH originates
from a hot reservoir at a
single temperature TH,
and all rejected heat QC
goes into a cold reservoir
at a single temperature TC.
The work done by the
engine is W.
136
137
Example 7.
A Tropical Ocean as a Heat Engine
Water near the surface of a tropical ocean has a temperature
of 298.2 K (25.0 C), whereas water 700 m beneath the surface
has a temperature of 280.2 K (7.0 C). It has been proposed
that the warm water be used as the hot reservoir and the cool
water as the cold reservoir of a heat engine. Find the maximum
possible efficiency for such an engine.
138
It is the second law, not the first law, that limits the
efficiencies of heat engines to values less than 100%.
139
In a
refrigerator,
the interior
of the unit is
the cold
reservoir,
while the
warmer
exterior is
the hot
reservoir.
141
A window air
conditioner
removes heat from
a room, which is
the cold reservoir,
and deposits heat
outdoors, which is
the hot reservoir.
142
Conceptual Example 9.
You Cant Beat the Second Law of
Thermodynamics
Is it possible to cool your kitchen by leaving the refrigerator
door open or cool your bedroom by putting a window air
conditioner on the floor by the bed?
143
144
145
This conventional
electric heating
system is delivering
1000 J of heat to the
living room.
(a)
(b)
147
148
(c)
149
Entropy
In general, irreversible processes cause us to lose some, but not
necessarily all, of the ability to perform work. This partial loss
can be expressed in terms of a concept called entropy.
Although the
relation S =
(Q/T)R applies
to reversible
processes, it
can be used as
part of an
indirect
procedure to
find the
entropy change
for an
irreversible
process.
151
153
154
Example 12.
Energy Unavailable for Doing Work
155
Suppose that 1200 J of heat is used as input for an engine under two
different conditions. In Figure part a the heat is supplied by a hot
reservoir whose temperature is 650 K. In part b of the drawing, the heat
flows irreversibly through a copper rod into a second reservoir whose
temperature is 350 K and then enters the engine. In either case, a 150-K
reservoir is used as the cold reservoir. For each case, determine the
maximum amount of work that can be obtained from the 1200 J of heat.
156
157
158
159
(d)
Energy of the
Water
Entropy of the
Water
a.
Increases
Increases
b.
Decreases
Decreases
c.
Remains constant
Decreases
d.
Remains constant
Increases
160
161
Q = U + W,
Q = mLs,
W = nRT
162
163
164
165
166
Conceptual Question 14
REASONING AND SOLUTION The efficiency of a Carnot engine is
given by Equation 15.15 efficiency 1 ( TC / TH ) . Three reversible
engines A, B, and C, use the same cold reservoir for their exhaust
heats. They use different hot reservoirs with the following
temperatures: (A) 1000 K; (B) 1100 K; and (C) 900 K. We can
rank these engines in order of increasing efficiency according to the
following considerations. The ratio TC / THis inversely proportional
to the value of TH. The ratio TC / THwill be smallest for engine B;
therefore, the quantity 1 TC / TH will be largest for engine B. Thus,
engine B has the largest efficiency. Similarly, the ratio TC / THwill be
largest for engine C; therefore, the quantity 1 TC / TH will be
smallest for engine C. Thus, engine C has the smallest efficiency.
Hence, the engines are, in order of increasing efficiency: engine C,
engine A, and engine B.
167
Conceptual Question 15
REASONING AND SOLUTION The efficiency of a Carnot engine
is given by Equation 15.15: efficiency 1 ( TC / TH )
a. Lowering the Kelvin temperature of the cold reservoir by a
factor of four makes the ratio TC / THone-fourth as great.
b. Raising the Kelvin temperature of the hot reservoir by a factor of
four makes the ratio TC / TH one-fourth as great.
c. Cutting the Kelvin temperature of the cold reservoir in half and
doubling the Kelvin temperature of the hot reservoir makes the
ratio TC / TH one-fourth as great.
Therefore, all three possible improvements have the same effect on
the efficiency of a Carnot engine.
168
Problem 51
REASONING AND SOLUTION The efficiency of the engine
is e = 1 - (TC/TH) so
Increase TH by 40 K; e = 1 - [(350 K)/(690 K)] = 0.493
Decrease TC by 40 K; e = 1 - [(310 K)/(650 K)] = 0.523
The greatest improvement is made by lowing the temperature
of the cold reservoir.
169
Problem 63
REASONING AND SOLUTION Let CP denote the coefficient
of performance. By definition (Equation 15.16), CP = QC/W,
so that
QC 7.6 104 J
4
CP
2.0
3.8 10 J
QH
T
CV n
1.14 105 J
5
1.4 K
5R n
[8.31 J/(mol K)](3800 mol)
2
2
QH
171
Problem 64
REASONING AND SOLUTION The amount of heat removed
from the ice QC is
$0.1
5
3
(
1
.
1
10
J
)
$
3
.
0
10
0.3 cents
6
3.6 10 J
172