Maxwell's Equations and Light Waves

Vector derivatives: Div, grad, curl, etc.

Derivation of wave equation from Maxwell's Equations
Why light waves are transverse waves
Why we neglect the magnetic field

Div, Grad, Curl, and all that

Types of 3D vector derivatives:

The Del operator:

,
,
x y z

The Gradient of a scalar function f :

r
f
f
f
f
,
,
x y z
The gradient points in the direction of steepest ascent.

If you want to
know more about
vector calculus,
read this book!

Div, Grad, Curl, and all that

The Divergence of a vector function:

r r
f x f y f z
f

x y z
The Divergence is nonzero
if there are sources or sinks.
A 2D source with a
large divergence:

y
x

Note that the x-component of this function changes rapidly in the x

direction, etc., the essence of a large divergence.

Div, Grad, Curl, and more all that

The Laplacian of a scalar function is the div of the grad:

f
2

r r
f

r f
f
f

,
,
x y z

2 f
2 f
2 f

2
2
x
y
z 2

The Laplacian of a vector function is the same,

but for each component of f:
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
r

fz
y
y
y
2
x
x
x
z
z
f

2 ,

, 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
x 2

The Laplacian tells us the curvature of a vector function.

Div, Grad, Curl, and still more all that

r
The Curl of a vector function f :

r r
f z f y f x f z f y f x
f

,

y dz z dx x dy
The curl can be treated as a matrix determinant :

r r
f
x

f x

y
fy

f z

Functions that tend to curl around have large curls.

A function with a large curl

r
f ( x, y, z ) ( y, x, 0)
r
f (1, 0, 0) (0,1, 0)
r
f (0,1, 0) ( 1, 0, 0)
r
f (1, 0, 0) (0, 1, 0)
r
f (0, 1, 0) (1, 0, 0)

r r f z f y
f y f x
f x f z
f

,

z x
x y
y z
0 0, 0 0, 1 (1)

0 , 0 , 2

So this function has a curl of 2z$

Lemma: A result well need to prove a

future theorem
It involves all these vector derivatives.

r
r r r
r r r
2
[ f ] ( f ) f

You get to prove this in a homework problem.

The equations of optics are

Maxwells equations.
r r
E 0
r r
B 0
r

r
r
B
E
t
r
r
r
E
B
t
r

where E is the electric field,B is the magnetic field,

is the permittivity, and is the permeability of the
medium.
As written, they assume no charges.

Derivation of the Wave Equation

from Maxwells Equations
Take

r
of:

r
r
B
E
t

Change the order of

differentiation on the RHS:

r
r
E
But: B
t

r
r r
r
r
B
yielding: [ E ] [
]
t

r r
r
r
r
[ E ] [ B ]
t

r
r r
r
r
r

E
Substituting for B , we have: [ E ] [
]
t
t

r
2
r r
r
E
[ E ]
t 2

assuming that
and are constant
in time.

Derivation of the Wave Equation

from Maxwells Equations (contd)
r
2
r r
r
E
[ E ]
t 2

Using the lemma,

becomes:

r
2
r r r
r
E
2
( E ) E
t 2

r r
But weve assumed zero charge density: = 0, so E 0
and were left with the Wave Equation!

E
E
t 2
2

where

= 1/c2

Why light waves are transverse

Suppose a wave propagates in the x-direction. Then its a function of x
and t (and not y or z), so all y- and z-derivatives are zero:

E y

E z B y B z

0
y
z
y
z

Now, in a charge-free medium,

that is,

r r
r r
E 0 and B

E x E y E z

0
x
y
z

Substituting the zero

values, we have:

E x
0
x

B x B y B z

0
x
y
z
and

B x
0
x

So the longitudinal fields are at most constant, and not waves.

The magnetic-field direction in a light wave

Suppose a wave propagates in the x-direction and has its electric field
along the y-direction [so Ex = Ez= 0, and Ey = Ey(x,t)].
What is the direction of the magnetic field?

Use:

r r
E z E y E x E z E y E x
B

So:
In other words:

E y

0, 0,

B z E y

t
x

And the magnetic field points in the z-direction.

The magnetic-field strength in a light wave

Suppose a wave propagates in the x-direction and has its electric
field in the y-direction. What is the strength of the magnetic field?
Start with:

B z E y

t
x

and

r
E y r , t E0 exp i kx t
%
%
t

We can integrate:

Bz ( x, t ) Bz ( x, 0)
%
%

Take Bz(x,0) = 0

So:

ik
Bz ( x, t )
E0 exp i (kx t )
%
i %

But / k = c:

1
Bz ( x, t ) E y ( x, t )
%
c%

E y
% dt
x
Differentiating Ey with
respect to x yields an ik,
and integrating with
respect to t yields a 1/-i.

An Electromagnetic Wave
The electric and magnetic fields are in phase.

Snapshot of the
wave at one time

The electric field, the magnetic field, and the k-vector are all
perpendicular:

r
E B k
r

The Energy Density of a Light Wave

1
E 2
2
11
B
The energy density of a magnetic field is: U B
2
The energy density of an electric field is: U E

1
Using B = E /c, and c
, which together imply that B E

we have:

11
1
2
UB
E E

2
2

U U E U B E

UE
2

Total energy density:

So the electrical and magnetic energy densities in light are equal.

Why we neglect the magnetic field

r
r
Felectrical Fmagnetic

The force on a charge, q, is:

r
r
r
r
F qE q v B
Taking the ratio of
the magnitudes
of the two forces:

Since B = E /c:

Fmagnetic
Felectrical

qvB

qE

Fmagnetic
Felectrical

r
where v is the

charge velocity

r
r
v B vB sin
vB

So as long as a charges velocity is much less than the speed of light,

we can neglect the lights magnetic force compared to its electric force.

The Poynting Vector:

S = c2 E x B

The power per unit area in a beam.

U = Energy density

Justification (but not a proof):

Energy passing through area A in time t:
=

U V

U A c t

So the energy per unit time per unit area:

c t

U V / ( A t ) = U A c t / ( A t ) = U c = c E

c2 E B

r
And the direction E B k is reasonable.
r

The Irradiance (often called the Intensity)

r r
1
S (r , t )
T

A light waves average power

per unit area is the irradiance.

t T / 2

r r
S ( r , t ) dt

t T /2

Substituting a light wave into the expression for the Poynting vector,

r
r
r
2
S c E B
, yields:
real amplitudes

r r
r r
r
r
2
2
S (r , t ) c E 0 B 0 cos (k r t )
The average of cos2 is 1/2:
1

1/2

r r
S (r , t )
r r
2
c E0 B0 (1/ 2)

r
I (r , t )

The Irradiance (continued)

Since the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular and B0 = E0 /c,

or:
where:

1
2

c E 0 B 0 becomes: I
2

r
1
I 2 c E~

1
2

r2

c E0

because the real amplitude

squared is the same as the
mag-squared complex one.

r 2
E0 E0 x E0*x E0 y E0* y E0 z E0*z
%
%% %% %%

Remember: this formula only works when the wave is of the form:

r r
r
r r
E r , t Re E0 exp i k r t

r r
that is, when all the fields involved have the same k r t

Practical
magnitudes
for
irradiance
Object

mV

Sun
Full Moon
Venus
Jupiter
Polaris
Naked-eye limit
Pluto
Hubble Telescope

-26.8
-12.5
-4.4
-2.7
2.0
6.0
15.1
31.0

Sunlight at earths surface:1 kW/m2

Moonlight at earths surface: 2 mW/m2

The magnitude (mv) often used

by astronomers is logarithmic.
For an increase in mv by five,
the irradiance decreases by a
factor of 100.
So a magnitude difference of 1
corresponds to a factor of
1001/5 or 2.5.

Sums of fields: Electromagnetism is linear,

so the principle of Superposition holds.
If E1(x,t) and E2(x,t) are solutions to the wave equation,
then E1(x,t) + E2(x,t) is also a solution.

2 (E 1 E 2 ) 2E 1 2E 2
2
Proof:
2
x
x
x 2

and

2 (E 1 E 2 ) 2E 1 2E 2
2 2
2
t
t
t

2 (E 1 E 2 ) 1 2 (E 1 E 2 ) 2E 1 1 2E 1
2

2
2
2
2
2
x
c
t

x
c

2E 2 1
2

2
x
c

2 E 2
2 0
t

This means that light beams can pass through each other.
It also means that waves can constructively or destructively interfere.

The irradiance of the sum of two waves

r r
If theyre both proportional to exp i ( k r t ) , then the irradiance is:

r r* 1
I c E0 E0 2 c E0 x E0 x* E0 y E0 y * E0 z E0 z *
% %
%%
%%
%%
1
2

Different polarizations (say x and y):

I 12 c E0 x E0 x* E0 y E0 y *
% %
% %

I x I y

Intensities
add.

Same polarizations (say E0 x E1 E2 ):

% % %
I 12 c E1 E1* 2 Re E1 E2*
% %
% %

Therefore:

E2 E2*
% %

I I1 c Re E1 E2* I 2
% %

Note the
cross term!

The cross term is the origin of interference!

Interference only occurs for beams with the same polarization.

The irradiance of the sum of two waves

of different color
We cant use the formula because the ks and s are different.

r r
r
r
2
So we need to go back to the Poynting vector, S ( r , t ) c E B

r r
r
r
r r
2
S (r , t ) c E 1 E 2 B 1 B 2
r
r
r r
r r
r
r
2
c E 1 B 1 E 1 B 2 E 2 B 1 E 2 B 2
r r
r r
r
r
E 10 cos(k1 r 1 t 1 ) B 20 cos(k2 r 2 t 2 )
r
r
This product averages to zero, as does E 2 B 1

Different colors:

I I1 I 2

Intensities add.

Waves of different color (frequency) do not interfere!

Irradiance of a sum of two waves

Same polarizations
Coherent
addition
Same
colors

I I1 I 2

c Re E1 E2
% %
*

Different polarizations

I I1 I 2

Incoherent
addition
Different
colors

I I1 I 2

I I1 I 2

Interference only occurs when the waves have the same color and
polarization.