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BSC2011 Animals Exam 2 Review
BSC2011 Animals Exam 2 Review
BSC2011 Animals Exam 2 Review
Animals
General characteristics
Multicellularity
Heterotrophy
Internal digestion
Motility
Synapomorphies
Phylogenies
Sponges
Eumetozoans
Bilaterally symmetric
Early Development
Cellular respiration
Metabolism
Transport systems
Extracellular fluid
Blood plasma
Interstitial fluid
Regulation
Regulators vs Conformers
Thermoregulation
Homeostasis
Thermoregulation
What do endotherms do
when
Hot?
Skin blood
vessels dilate,
heat radiates
from skin
Increased
sweatingevaporative
cooling
Cold?
Skin blood
vessels constrict
and divert blood
away from skin
to deeper tissueprevent heat loss
Shivering-muscle
contraction
Heat transfer
Mechanisms
Fouriers law
Q = kA (T1-T2)/d
Gas exchange
Q = DA (P1-P2)/L
Ventilation in Lungs
Exhalation-opposite processes
Unidirectional ventilation
O2 transport
Food + O2
act of eating
Digestion
Process
Elimination
Undigested
Glands
Salivary
glands
salivary
amylase
starch/glycogen breakdown
Pancreas
Amylases
Trypsin/Chymotrypsin
Nucleases
Lipases
Liver
Bile
(emulsifiers)
Gall-bladder
Bile
salts (storage/concentration)
Stomach
Physiology
Stores
Pepsin
Hydrolysis of proteins
Mucus
lining of stomach
Mucus
Small Intestine
Duodenum
Pancreas
Liver
Biotranformation enzymes
Degrades drugs/hormones/toxins
emulsification of fats
Fat Digestion
1.
2.
3.
- water soluble
Large Intestine
Major
Feces
Wastes
Bacteria
of digestive tract
Generate
i.e.
gases
Produce
Biotin,
Rectum:
vitamins
folic acid, vitamin K, B vitamins
terminal portion
Nitrogenous Wastes
Ammonia
Soluble
Toxic
Need
Urea
Ammonia
+ CO2
Nontoxic
Requires
Uric
a lot of energy
Acid
Nontoxic
Requires
Osmoregulation
Osmolarity
Osmoconformers
Osmoregulators
Excretory Pathway
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bowman's capsule
Proximal tubule
5.
Collecting duct
6.
7.
Circulatory System:
Invertebrates
Gastrovascular
cavities
Digestion
Open
Open
blood
Sinuses:
Closed
blood
Distinct
7 Vessel types
atria
ventricles
arteries
arterioles
capillaries
venules
veins
Vertebrate
group
# of heart chambers
1. fishes
1 atrium, 1 ventricle (1
chamber)
2. amphibians
2 atria, 1 ventricle
3. turtles,
lepidosaurs,
tuatara
4. crocodilians
2 atria, 2 ventricles
Same as reptiles
5. birds
2 atria, 2 ventricles
6. mammals
4 chambers
Double Circulation
Systole: contraction
Diastole: relaxation
Blood Composition
Transport oxygen
Function in defense
Produce antibodies
Platelets
Blood clotting
Blood capillaries
Arteries
Thicker
No valves
Veins
Thinner
Endocrine system
Hormone types
1.
2.
Water soluble
Steroid hormones
Lipid soluble
3.
Amine hormones
Regulation
Neurons
Thyroid Hormones
located in neck
stimulated by TSH: releases thyroxine (T4) and T3
Lipophilic
Increases
Cellular respiration
Glycogen breakdown
Body temp
Breathing rate
Calcitonin
Parathyroid Hormone
Pancreas
Insulin:
Peptide
Released by Beta cells
Lowers Blood Glucose Levels by
Glucagon:
Peptide
Released by Alpha cells
increases blood glucose level by
Posterior Pituitary
Extension of hypothalamus
Oxytocin
Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone
stimulates protein synthesis and growth
in most cells especially of bones
stimulates metabolism
stimulated by GHRH (growth hormone
releasing hormone)
inhibited by somatostatin
Prolactin
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH)
stimulates adrenal cortex to release
glucocotocoids
regulated by corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH)
3 hormone cascades
Hyp-GnRH-Pit-FSH,LH-Gonads-Sex steroids
Reproduction
Sexual vs Asexual
Asexual
Sexual
Simultaneous
Sequential
Testes
Seminiferous tubules
Leydig cells
male gonads
Testes
Androgens:
stimulated by FSH and LH
Secreted by leydig cells
example: testosterone
sperm
Ovaries
Follicles
Bartholins glands
Vagina
Uterus
Oviduct
Corpus luteum
Mammary glands
secrete milk
Ovaries
Ovarian Cycle
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
10.
Fertilization
Internal
External
Contraception
rhythm method
barrier method
barrier b/t sperm and egg
diaphragm, cervical cap, condoms; 75%
Hormones
sterilization
Tubal ligation
oviducts
Vasectomy
vas
Spermatogenesis and
oogenisis
Nervous system
Interneurons
Signaling
Na/K pump
Ion Channels
Potentials
Cumulative
Action potential
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Refractory period
All-or-nothing
Neuron Communication
Electricalsynapse:gapjunctionsallow actionpotentials
flow from one cell to the next.
Immune system
Pathogen-causes disease
Acquired immunity
Innate defense
Phagocytosis
Hygiene Hypothesis
Inflammation
Promotes healing
Allergies
Autoimmune disease
Acquired immunity
1.
Specificity-recognize antigens
2.
3.
Diversity
4.
Immunological memory
2 branches
Acquired immunity
3 phases
Humoral immunity
1. Antigen binds to a B cell with an antibody specific to that
antigen (antigen fragments bind to the MHC II complex and
are presented on the B cell surface)
2. A specific Th cell with a matching receptor binds to the MHCII/antigen complex and releases cytokines, which stimulate the
specific B cell to divide and form a clone (clonal selection).
3. B clone cells give rise to two types of cells:
Cellular immunity
Cellular immunity
1.
The antigen-presenting cell is typically a
macrophage MHC-II proteins present pathogen
fragments on cell surface.
2.
A matching TH cell binds to the MHC-II/antigen
complex and releases cytokines. Cytokines stimulate
the division of Tc cells with matching T cell receptors.
These form both effector and memory cells.
3.
Effector TC cells bind to cells bearing the
antigen / MHC-I complex and destroy them by producing
perforin or by stimulating apoptosis.