PRIME MOVERS AND GOVERNING

SYSTEMS

Copyright P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent

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Prime Movers and Governing Systems

Outline

1. Hydraulic Turbines and Governing Systems

hydraulic turbine transfer function

special characteristics of hydraulic turbines

nonlinear hydraulic turbine model

governors for hydraulic turbines

tuning of speed governors

2. Steam Turbines and Governing Systems

steam turbine configurations

steam turbine models

steam turbine controls

3. Gas Turbines and Governing Systems

simple-cycle configuration

combined-cycle configuration

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Hydraulic Turbines and Governing

Systems

The performance of a hydraulic turbine is

influenced by the characteristics of the water
column feeding the turbine:

water inertia

water compressibility

pipe wall elasticity in the penstock

The effect of water inertia is to cause changes in

turbine flow to lag behind changes in turbine
gate opening

The effect of elasticity is to cause traveling

waves of pressure and flow in the pipe - a
phenomenon referred to as water hammer

typically, the speed of propagation of such waves

is about 1200 meters/sec

traveling wave model required only if penstock is

very long

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1. Hydraulic Turbine Transfer Function

The representation of the hydraulic turbine and

water column in stability studies usually
assumes that (a) the penstock is inelastic, (b) the
water is incompressible, and (c) hydraulic
resistance is negligible

Figure 9.2: Schematic of a hydroelectric plant

The turbine and penstock characteristics are

determined by three basic equations relating to:

velocity of water in the penstock

turbine mechanical power

acceleration of water column

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The velocity of the water in the penstock is given by

U K uG H

where
U = water velocity
G = gate position
H = hydraulic head at gate
Ku = a constant of proportionality
The turbine mechanical power is proportional to the
product of pressure and flow; hence,

P K HU

m
p
The acceleration of water
column
due to a change
in head at the turbine, characterized by Newton's
second law of motion, may be expressed as

LA dU A a g H

dt
where
L = length of conduit
A = pipe area
= mass density
ag = acceleration due to gravity
LA
= mass of water in the conduit
ag H
= incremental change in pressure at
turbine gate

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For small displacements (prefix ) about an initial

operating point (subscript "0") we can shows that
Pm
1 Tw S

G 1 1 T S
w
2

where

Tw

(9.11)

LU0
a gH0

Tw is referred to as the water starting time. It

represents the time required for a head H0 to
accelerate the water in the penstock from standstill to
the velocity U0. It should be noted that Tw varies with
load. Typically, Tw at full load lies between 0.5 s and
4.0 s.

Equation 9.11 represents the "classical" transfer

function of the turbine-penstock system. It shows
how the turbine power output changes in response to
a change in gate opening for an ideal lossless turbine.

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Special Characteristics of Hydraulic Turbines

The transfer function given by Equation 9.11

represents a "non-minimum phase" system
Systems with poles or zeros in the right half of
s-plane are referred to as non-minimum phase
systems; they do not have the minimum amount of
phase shift for a given magnitude plot. Such
systems cannot be uniquely identified by a
knowledge of magnitude versus frequency plot
alone.

The special characteristic of the transfer function

may be illustrated by considering the response to a
step change in gate position. The time response is
given by:

Pm t 1 3e

t
2

T
w

Figure 9.3 shows a plot of the response of an ideal

turbine model with Tw = 4.0 s

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Figure 9.3: Change in turbine mechanical power

following a unit step increase in gate position

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 Immediately following a unit increase in gate

position, the mechanical power actually decreases
by 2.0 per unit. It then increases exponentially
with a time constant of Tw/2 to a steady state value
of 1.0 per unit above the initial steady state value

The initial power surge is opposite to that of the

direction of change in gate position. This is
because, when the gate is suddenly opened, the
flow does not change immediately due to water
inertia; however, the pressure across the turbine
is reduced causing the power to reduce.

With a response determined by Tw, the water

accelerates until the flow reaches the new steady
value which establishes the new steady power
output

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Governors for Hydraulic Turbines

The speed/load control function involves feeding back

speed error to control the gate position. In order to
ensure satisfactory and stable parallel operation of
multiple units, the speed governor is provided with a
droop characteristic.

Typically, the steady state droop is set at about 5%, such

that a speed deviation of 5% causes 100% change in
gate position or power output; this corresponds to a gain
of 20.

For a hydro turbine, however, such a governor with a

simple steady state droop characteristic would be
unsatisfactory

Requirement for a Transient Droop

Hydro turbines have a peculiar response due to water

inertia: a change in gate position produces an initial
turbine power change which is opposite to that sought.

For stable control performance, a large transient

(temporary) droop with a long resetting time is
therefore required. This is accomplished by the
provision of a rate feedback or transient gain reduction
compensation as shown in Figure 9.8

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The rate feedback retards or limits the gate

movement until the water flow and power output
have time to catch up

The result is a governor which exhibits a high

droop (low gain) for fast speed deviations, and the
normal low droop (high gain) in the steady state

Figure 9.8: Governor with transient droop compensation

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Mechanical Hydraulic Governor

On older units, the governing function is realized

using mechanical and hydraulic components

Speed sensing, permanent droop feedback, and

computing functions are achieved through mechanical
components; functions involving higher power are
achieved through hydraulic components

A dashpot is used to provide transient droop

compensation. A bypass arrangement is usually
provided to disable the dashpot if so desired.

Water is not a very compressible fluid; if the gate is

closed too rapidly the resulting pressure could burst
the penstock

Consequently, the gate movement is rate limited

Often, the rate of gate movement is limited even

further in the buffer region near full closure to provide
cushioning

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Figure 9.9: Schematic of a mechanical-hydraulic governor

for a hydro turbine

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Parameters
Tp = Pilot valve and servomotor time
constant
Ks = Servo gain

Sample data
0.05 s
5.0

TG =

Main servo time

0.2 s

Rp =

Permanent droop

0.04

RT =

Temporary droop

0.4

TR =

Reset time

5.0 s

Constraints
Maximum gate position limit = 1.0
Minimum gate position limit = 0
Rmax open = Maximum gate opening rate

0.16 p.u./s

Rmax close

= Maximum gate closing rate

0.16 p.u./s

Rmax buff

= Maximum gate closing rate in

buffered region
= Buffered region in p.u. of
servomotor stroke

0.04 p.u./s

gbuff

0.08 p.u.

Figure 9.10: Model of governors for hydraulic turbines

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Electro-Hydraulic Governor

Modern speed governors for hydraulic turbines use

electric-hydraulic systems. Functionally, their
operation is very similar to those of mechanicalhydraulic governors

Speed sensing, permanent droop, temporary droop,

and other measuring and computing functions are
performed electrically

Electric components provide greater flexibility and

improved performance with regard to dead-bands and
time lags

Dynamic characteristics of electric governors are

usually adjusted to be essentially similar to those of
mechanical-hydraulic governors

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Tuning of Speed Governing Systems

There are two important considerations in the selection

of governor settings:

Stable operation during system islanding conditions or

isolated operation; and

Acceptable speed of response for loading and unloading

under normal synchronous operation

For stable operation under islanding conditions, the

optimum choice of the temporary droop RT and reset
time TR are as follows:

R T 2.3 Tw 1.0 0.15

Tw
TM

TR 5.0 Tw 1.0 0.5 Tw

For loading and unloading during normal

interconnected system operation, the above settings
result in too slow a response. For satisfactory loading
rates, the reset time TR should be less than 1.0 s,
preferably close to 0.5 s.

The dashpot bypass arrangement can be used to meet

the above conflicting requirements

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2. Steam Turbines and Governing

Systems

A steam turbine converts stored energy of high

pressure and high temperature steam into rotating
energy

Steam turbines with a variety of configurations have

been built depending on unit size and steam conditions

the heat source may be a nuclear reactor or a fossil fired

boiler

normally consist of two or more turbine sections or

cylinders coupled in series

A turbine with multiple sections may be

tandem-compound: sections are all on one shaft with a

single generator, or

cross-compound: sections are on two shafts, each with a

generator; operated as a single unit

Fossil-fuelled units can be of tandem-compound or

cross-compound design

may be of reheat or non-reheat type

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Figure 9.16: Common configurations of tandem-compound

steam turbine of fossil-fueled units
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Figure 9.17: Examples of cross-compound steam turbine

configurations
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Nuclear units usually have tandem-compound

turbines

Figure 9.18: An example of nuclear unit turbine configuration

moisture separator reheater (MSR) reduces moisture

content, thereby reducing moisture losses and erosion
rates

Large steam turbines for fossil-fuelled or nuclear

units are equipped with four sets of valves

main inlet stop valves (MSV)

main inlet control (governor) valves (CV)

reheater stop valves (RSV)

reheater intercept valves (IV)

The stop valves (MSV and RSV) are primarily

emergency trip valves.

The CVs modulate steam flow during normal

operation.

The CVs as well as the IVs limit overspeed.

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Steam Turbine Model

For illustration, let us consider a fossil-fuelled single

reheat tandem-compound turbine, a type in common use

Figure 9.21(a) identifies the turbine elements that need to

be considered

Figure 9.21(b) shows the block diagram representation

The CVs modulate the steam flow for load/frequency

control

the response of steam flow to CV opening exhibits a time

constant TCH due to charging time of the steam chest and
inlet piping

TCH is of the order of 0.2 to 0.3 s

The IVs are used only for rapid control of turbine power
in the event of an overspeed

control about 70% of total power

the steam flow in the IP and LP sections can change only

with the build-up of pressure in the reheater volume

the reheater time constant TRH is in the range 5 to 10 s

the steam flow in LP sections experiences a time constant

TCO associated with the crossover piping; this is of the
order of 0.5 s

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Parameters
TCH
= time constant of main inlet volumes and steam chest
TRH

= time constant of reheater

TCO

= time constant of crossover piping and LP inlet

volumes

Pm

= total turbine power in per unit of maximum turbine

power

Pmc

= total turbine mechanical power in per unit of common

MVA base

PMAX

= maximum turbine power in MW

FHP,FIP,FLP

= fraction of total turbine power generated by HP, IP, LP

sections, respectively

MVAbase

= common MVA base

Figure 9.21: Single reheat tandem-compound steam turbine

model
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Simplified Transfer Function of a Steam

Turbine
A simplified transfer function of the turbine relating perturbed values of the turbine power
and CV position may be written as follows:

Pm
FHP
1 FHP

It is assumed thatV
T is negligible
comparison
T , andthat
the CV characteristic is
1 insT
1with
sT
CV
CH
CH 1 sTRH
CO

RH

linear

1 sFHP TRH
1 sTCH 1 sTRH

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Turbine Response

The response of a tandem-compound turbine to a ramp

down of the CV opening is shown in Figure 9.22.

has no peculiarity such as that exhibited by a hydraulic

turbine due to water inertia

governing requirements more straightforward

Figure 9.22: Steam turbine response to a 1-second ramp

change in CV opening
TRH=7.0 s, FHP=0.3; TCH and TCO negligible

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Steam Turbine Controls

Functions:

The governing systems have three basic functions:

normal speed/load control

overspeed control

overspeed trip

In addition, the turbine controls include a number of

other functions such as start-up/shut-down controls
and auxiliary pressure control

The speed/load control is a fundamental requirement

achieved through control of CVs

the speed control function provides the governor with a

4 to 5% speed drop

the load control function achieved by adjusting

speed/load reference

The overspeed control and protection is peculiar to

steam turbines

of critical importance for safe operation

speed should be limited to well below the design

maximum speed of 120%

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The overspeed control is the first line of defense

involves fast control of CVs and IVs

limits overspeed following load rejection to 0.5 to 1.0%

below overspeed trip level

returns the turbine to a steady-state condition with turbine

ready for reloading

The overspeed or emergency trip is a backup

protection

designed to be independent of the overspeed control

fast closes the main and reheat stop valves, and trips the
boiler

The characteristics of steam valves are highly

nonlinear

compensation is often used to linearize steam flow

response to the control signal

compensation may be achieved by a forward loop series

compensation, a minor loop feedback, or a major loop
feedback.

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Governing Systems

Systems used for the above control functions have

evolved over the years:

older units used mechanical-hydraulic control

electro-hydraulic control was introduced in the 1960s

most governors supplied today are electro-hydraulic

or digital electro-hydraulic

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The functional block diagram of a mechanicalhydraulic control (MHC) system is shown in Figure
9.25

the speed governor is a mechanical transducer which

transformers speed into position output

the speed relay is a spring loaded servomotor which

amplifies the speed governor signal

the hydraulic servomotor provides additional

amplification to the energy level necessary to move the
steam valves

Figure 9.25: Functional block diagram of MHC turbine

governing system

Figure 9.31 shows the block diagram of an MHC

speed governing system, including the overspeed
control (auxiliary governor) applicable to a specific
make

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Figure 9.31: MHC turbine governing system with auxiliary

governor

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The electro-hydraulic control (EHC) systems use

electronic circuits in place of mechanical
components associated with the MHC in the lowpower portions

offer more flexibility and adaptability

Fig. 9.33 shows an example of EHC governing

system. It has two special features for limiting
overspeed: IV trigger and power load unbalance
(PLU) relay.

the IV trigger is armed when the load (measured by

reheat pressure) is greater than 0.1 p.u. It is designed
to fast close IVs when the speed exceeds set value.

the PLU relay is designed to fast close CVs and IVs

under load rejection conditions. It trips when the
difference between turbine power and generator load
exceeds a preset value (0.4 p.u.) and the load
decreases faster than a preset rate.

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Fig. 9.33 EHC governing system with PLU relay and IV

trigger
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3. Gas Turbines

The heat source is a hydrocarbon-based fuel

in either gaseous or liquid state

fuel is burned directly in the working fluid

like any internal combustion engine, requires external

source for startup

The power produced by the gas turbine is used to

drive an alternator to produce electrical power at
frequencies compatible with local grids

Exhaust heat is often used to generate steam, which

can be used for a process, as in the case of
cogeneration

Alternatively, steam produced using exhaust heat

can be used in a steam turbine to generate additional
electrical power

combined-cycle configuration

Many variations in configurations and controls

simple-cycle configuration

no standard models

CIGRE TF: 38.02.25 report published in April 2003

addresses modeling issues

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