Mycetozoan

Biodiversity in the Great

Smoky Mountains
National Park
Great Smoky Mountains National Park
 Great Smoky Mountains
National Park
• National Park in 1934
• International Biosphere Reserve
in 1976
• World Heritage Site in 1983
• ATBI in 1998
 Great Smoky Mountains
National Park
• >200,000 ha in extent
• located in western North Carolina
and eastern Tennessee
• elevation range of 270 m to 2000 m
• 95% of the Park is forested
• >130 species of trees
 Major Types of Communities
• Spruce-fir forests (>1525 m)
• Northern hardwood forests (1065 to 1525 m)
• Pine-oak forests (<1065 m, xeric sites)
• Cove hardwood forests (<1065 m, mesic sites)
• Hemlock forests (generally along streams)
• Other types of communities
Old-Growth Forests
Members of the Slime Mold TWIG
at Purchase Knob in August 2003
 Participants in the ATBI
Slime Mold TWIG
• Grazina Adamonyte • Roland McHugh
• Denise Binion • David Mitchell
• Dawn Black • Yuri Novozhilov
• James Cavender • Carlos Rojas
• Randy Darrah • Adam Rollins
• Uno Eliasson • Wayne Rosing
• Tom Gaither • Martin Schnittler
• Harold Keller • John Shadwick
• Tatyana Krivomaz • Fred Spiegel
• John Landolt • Ted Stampfer
Hemitrichia calyculata
The Mycetozoans Consist of Three
Distinct Groups of Organisms
• Myxomycetes
(or plasmodial slime molds)
• Dictyostelids
(or cellular slime molds)
• Protostelids
(or protostelid slime molds)
Myxomycetes
[ca 875 species]
Dictyostelids
[ca 120 species]
 The myxomycetes are the
largest and best known group,
and primary emphasis has
been placed on collecting and
studying these organisms.
 Primary Microhabitats

• Coarse woody debris

• Ground litter
• Bark surface of living trees
 Other Microhabitats
• Dung of herbivores (e.g., deer)
• Soil (upper humus-rich layers)
• Aerial litter (dead but attached
plant parts above the ground)
• Twigs and dead aerial wood
 Sources of Records
• Field collections (fruiting bodies
that developed under natural
conditions)
• Moist chamber culture
collections (fruiting bodies that
developed under laboratory
conditions)
Hemitrichia serpula
Moist chamber culture Moist chamber culture
prepared with samples prepared with samples
of bark of leaf litter
Perichaena vermicularis
Licea biforis
Clastoderma debaryanum
Perichaena chrysosperma
 Ecological Distribution
• Found throughout the Park
• Generally restricted to hardwood
forests
• Generally restricted to coniferous
forests
• Limited to particular microhabitats
Arcyria cinerea
Physarum viride
Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa

. . . if considered to be a myxomycete!
Metatrichia vesparium
Enerthenema papillatum
Leocarpus fragilis
Worldwide distribution of Leocarpus fragilis
 Southern Appalachian
Spruce-fir Forests
• Great Smoky Mountains National
Park
• Mount Rogers in southwestern
Virginia
• Blister Run/Gaudineer Scenic Area
in eastern central West Virginia
 Field Collections
• More than 1200 total collections
• At least 89 species representing 34
genera
• Number of species recorded from a
particular study site ranged from 63
(GSMNP) to 39 (Mount Rogers)
 Ecological Distribution

• >95% wood or bark

• 3% forest floor litter
• 1% other (e.g., living plants)
• >30% associated with bryophytes
 Most Common Species

• Licea minima
• Trichia decipiens
• Lepidoderma tigrinum
• Lycogala epidendrum
• Physarum viride
“Special” Species (spruce-fir)

• Barbeyella minutissima
• Lepidoderma tigrinum
• Colloderma oculatum
• Lamproderma columbinum
• Elaeomyxa cerifera
Barbeyella minutissima
Colloderma oculatum
Elaeomyxa cerifera
Lepidoderma tigrinum
 Since the slime mold survey
component of the ATBI began
in 1998, the number of species
of myxomycetes known from
the Park has increased from 88
to more than 220.
Recent new records (GSMNP & NA)
• Comatrichia pinicillata
• Lamproderma granulosum
• Licea microscopica
• L. rufocuprea
• L. sambucina
Stephenson et al. 2001, Snell et al. 2003
• Diachea arboricola A species new to
science; Keller et al. 2004
 Dictyostelids are microscopic at virtually all
stages of their life cycle, including the fruiting body.

Dictyostelium discoideum in the wild (on deer scat)

(photo courtesy of Thomas Platt, Rice University)
Oval spores showing polar
granule characteristic
A large aggregation
Migrating pseudoplasmodia
Stalked fruiting bodies developing
 Fruiting
bodies of
several
types of
cellular
slime
molds
(from Am.
J. Bot)
Typical leaf litter habitat
Remove
Intact
leaves
 Scraping
soil/litter
into sterile
bag
 10-50 g
soil/litter
in a
sample
bag
Weighing out soil sample for
dilution
 Surveys for Dictyostelids
• Sampling was carried out during the period
of 1993 to 2004
• A total of 412 samples from study sites
throughout the Park
• Study sites included examples of all major
forest types along with the more common
types of non-forest vegetation
• >2300 clones of dictyostelids recovered
 Collection Sites
High Elevation
Clingman’ Dome
Indian Gap
Andrews Bald
Double Springs
Balsam Mountain Mid Elevation
Purchase Knob* Snakeden Ridge
Ramsey Cascade
Chimneys Campground
Foothills Parkway-West Low Elevation
Little River Ravensford
Madron Bald Trail Oconoluftee
Rich Mountain Fontana Dam
Twin Creeks Deep Creek
Gregory’s Cave Perimeter
Gregory’s Cave Interior
Foothills Parkway-East
Cades Cove
Tremont
CELLULAR SLIME MOLDS FROM THE GSMNP – Species names in black
are reported prior to the current survey; names in red are additions made
(mostly since 2001). Many of the added species came from “extremes” of
elevation, soil dryness, soil acidity or within caves. Most unassigned forms
in this table have now been formally described (Cavender et al. 2005)

1 Acytostelium leptosomum 13 Dictyostelium aureostipes 24 D. purpureum

2 A. subglobossum 14 D. aureostipes var. helvetium 25 D. septentrionalis
3 A. sp. A 15 D. discoideum 26 D. sphaerocephalum
4 A. sp. B 16 D. firmibasis ? 27 D. sp. A
5 A. sp. C 17 D. giganteum 28 D. sp. B
6 A. sp. D 18 D. implicatum 29 D. sp. C
7 A. sp. E 19 D. lacteum 30 D. sp. D
8 Polysphondylium candidum 20 D. "leptosomum" 31 D. sp. E
9 P. pallidum 21 D. minutum 32 D. sp. F
10 P. pseudocandidum 22 D. mucoroides 33 D. sp. G
11 P. tenuissimum 23 D. polycephalum 34 D. sp. H
12 P. violaceum
 The following images were
obtained using an auto-montage set-
up which allows better visualization
of the minute, usually pigment free
fruiting bodies and other life stages.

Special thanks to Andy Swanson

A Guide to the
Common Dictyostelid
Slime Molds of Great
Smoky Mountains
National Park

Andrew R. Swanson
Department of Biological
Sciences
University of Arkansas
 B C

E D
F

Dictyostelium mucoroides Brefeld

syn. Dictyostelium brefeldianum Hagiwara
A) Sorocarps growing on a hay infusion isolation plate. B) migrating sorogens & young sorocarps (note stalked migration).
C) mature sorocarps. D) tips (note morphological range from clavate to more typical capitate). E) spores (note lack of
distinct polar granules. F) aggregation.
 B

E D C
Dictyostelium sphaerocephalum (Oud) Sacc. et March.
syn. Hyalostilbum sphaerocephalum Oud.
syn. Dictyostelium mucoroides Brefeld - sensu Hagiwara
A) Mature sorocarps (note ‘L’-shaped form agar surface). B) aggregations. C) spores (note lack of prominent polar
granules). D) tip (note adherent material at apex and collar). E) mature sorocarps.
 C

D
A B

G F E

Dictyostelium discoideum Raper

A) mature sorocarp (note discoid base). B) base. C) tip (note closely adherent spore mass). D) spores (note lack of
prominent polar granules). E) aggregation. F) migrating slug (note stalkless migration). G) detail, discoid base.
 B C
A

G F E D
Dictyostelium minutum Raper
A) Colony (note size in comparison with P. pallidum). B. developing and mature sorocarps. C) mature sorocarps. D) tip and
spores. E) tip. F) spores (note polar granules – often not as prominent as pictured). G) aggregations.
 B
A C D

H G F E

Dictyostelium purpureum Olive

A) mature sorocarps. B) mature sorocarp (note pigmented stalk and sori). C) lower stalk (note purple pigmentation). D)
rounded base. E) base with supporter. F) stalk tip. G) spores (note lack of prominent polar granules) . H) aggregation.
 B
A C

E
F

Polysphondylium pallidum Olive

A) mature sorocarps. B) mature sorocarp (note whorls). C) branch tip. D) spores (note characteristic unconsolidated polar
granules). E) aggregation. F) developing sorocarps.
 A B

C
B

F E D

Polysphondylium violaceum Brefeld

A) mature sorocarps (note violet pigmentation). B) mature sorocarp. C) tip. D) branch tip & spores E) spores (note prominent
polar granules). F) aggregations.
 C

A B

H G F E

Dictyostelium aureo-stipes Cavender, Raper et Norberg

A) developing sorocarps. B) mature sorocarps (note yellow pigmentation at branch confluence). C) matue sorocarps.
D) mature sorocarp (note irregular crowded branches). E) stalk and spores (note yellow pigmentation at stalk edges).
F) tip and spores (note obtuse tip and consolidated polar spore granules). G) aggregations. H) rising sorogens.
A C

F
G E

Dictyostelium polycephalum Raper

A) Aggregation and developing slug. B) migrating slug and developing sorocarp. C) rising slug (note size of nearby
sorocarp). D) developing sorocarp. E) mature sorocarp F) mature sorocarp. G) spores (note unconsolidated polar
granules).
 A B C

H G D
F E
Acytostelium subglobosum Cavender
A) numerous developing and mature sorocarps. B) sorogens, sorocarps, and spore masses. C) mature sorocarps (note
development toward activated charcoal). D) base. E) tip. F) tip & spores. G) spores. H) aggregation, sorogens & spore
masses.
Ecological Assemblages of
Dictyostelids

• Higher elevations, soil pH <5.0

• Lower elevations, soil pH >5.0
• Wide range of elevations and
soil pH conditions
 Higher elevations and
soil pH <5.0

• Dictyostelium discoideum
• Dictyostelium septentrionalis
• Polysphondylium tenuissimum
• Several newly described species
 Lower elevations and
soil pH >5.0

• Dictyostelium giganteum
• Dictyostelium lacteum
• Dictyostelium purpureum
• Dictyostelium minutum
 Wide range of elevations
and soil conditions

• Dictyostelium mucoroides
• Dictyostelium aureostipes
• Polysphondylium pallidum
• Polysphondylium violaceum
 Recently Described
Dictyostelid Species from
GSMNP Collections

(Cavender, J. C. et al. 2005. Mycologia 97:493-512)

A. anastomosans
FP5A
A. longisorophorum
DB10A
A. magnisorum
08A
A. serpentarium
SAB3A
A. singulare
FDIB
D. amphisporum
BM9A
D. naviculare
SAB5A
D. oculum dB4B
D. potamoides
FP1A
D.stellatum
SAB7B
 Dictyostelid General
Summary
• Total number of species known from the
Park has increased from 12 to >30.
• Overall species richness (18 to 20) is similar
at all elevations (with some differences in
assemblages).
• Dictyostelid abundance generally decreases
with increasing elevation/decreasing pH.
• Many of the new records and new species are
from high elevation/low pH/low plant
diversity “marginal” habitats.
 There were no reports of
protostelids from the Park
prior to the ATBI.
 Surveys for Protostelids
• Sampling was carried out in October
2000 and November 2003
• Study sites included examples of all
major forest types along with the more
common types of non-forest vegetation
• Substrates examined included aerial
litter, ground litter, bark of living trees,
and coarse woody debris
 Some of the collections of
myxomycetes and dictyostelids
from the Park are being used in
studies to determine the “genetic
relatedness” of collections of the
same species from the same and
different regions of the world.
 Prototrichia metallica

Robert Hagelstein (“found in August [1939] near

Newfound Gap, at an altitude of 4200 feet”)
 Appreciation is extended to Discover Life in
America for their support of mycetozoan
research in the Great Smoky Mountains
National Park and also to the
Shepherd University Foundation and Alumni
Association. We also thank a number of
volunteers who assisted in sampling efforts.