Introduction to the

Human Body
Tenth Edition
Gerard J. Tortora Bryan H. Derrickson

Chapter 18
The Respiratory System

The Respiratory System

Organs of the respiratory system

Pulmonary ventilation

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Transport of respiratory gases

Control of breathing

Exercise and the respiratory system

Aging and the respiratory system

ORGANS OF THE
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM

Organs of the Respiratory

The respiratory system, which includes the nose,
System

pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea

(windpipe), bronchi, and lungs, provides for gas
exchange, the intake of O2, and the removal of CO2.
The respiratory system also helps regulate blood
pH; contains receptors for the sense of smell; filters,
warms, and moistens inspired air; produces sounds;
and rids the body of some water and heat in exhaled
air.
The branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis
and treatment of diseases of the ears, nose, and
throat (ENT) is called otorhinolaryngology.

Organs of the Respiratory

System
The entire process of gas exchange in the body,
called respiration, occurs in three basic steps:
1. Pulmonary ventilation
2. External respiration
3. Internal respiration

Functionally, the respiratory system can also be

divided into two parts:
The conducting zone consists of a series of
interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and
within the lungs.
. The respiratory zone consists of tissues within the
lungs where gas exchange occurs between air and
blood.
.

Organs of the Respiratory

System

Organs of the Respiratory

System

Organs of the Respiratory

System
The nose is a specialized organ at the entrance to the

respiratory system and has a visible external portion and

an internal portion. The external portion of the nose is
made of cartilage and skin and is lined with mucous
membrane.

Openings to the exterior are the external nares. The

internal portion of the nose, divided from the external
portion by the nasal septum, communicates with the
paranasal sinuses and nasopharynx through the internal
nares. The nose is adapted for warming, moistening, and
filtering air; olfaction; and serving as a resonating
chamber.

Nose

Internal

Connects to the throat through two internal nares

Four paranasal sinuses (frontal, sphenoidal, maxillary,

ethmoidal) and the nasolacrimal ducts also connect

Called the nasal cavity

Nasal septum (made of ethmoid bone, vomer and cartilage)

External

external nose-portion you can see-made up of

bone/cartilage, covered with skin and lined with mucous
membrane

Two openings (nares/nostrils)

Functions

filtering, warming, and moistening incoming air

detecting olfactory (smell) stimuli

modifying the vibrations of speech sounds

Air enters the nostrils it passes coarse hairs that trap large dust particles

Air then flows over three bones called the superior, middle, and inferior nasal
conchae or turbinates

Mucous membrane lines the nasal cavity and the three conchae

Air moves around the conchae and is warmed by capillaries

Olfactory receptors lie in the membrane lining the superior nasal conchae and
adjacent septum. This region is called the olfactory epithelium

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells and goblet cells line the nasal cavity

Mucus secreted by goblet cells moistens the air and traps dust particles

Cilia move mucus toward the pharynx (mucociliary escalator)

Can be swallowed or spit out

Critical Thinking: What happens with smokers or those exposed to

air pollution?

Organs of the Respiratory

System
The pharynx (throat), is a funnel-shaped tube that starts at

the internal nares and extends partway down the neck. It

lies just posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and just
anterior to the cervical (neck) vertebrae. Its wall is composed of skeletal muscle and lined with mucous membrane.

The pharynx functions as a passageway for air and food,

is a resonating chamber for speech sounds and houses the
tonsils.

It is divided into the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and

laryngopharynx. The nasopharynx functions in respiration.
The oropharynx and laryngopharynx function both in
digestion and in respiration.

Pharynx

Funnel-shaped tube starts at the internal nares and

extends partway down the neck

It lies just posterior to the nasal/oral cavities and just anterior to the
cervical (neck) vertebrae

Its wall is composed of skeletal muscle and lined with mucous

membrane

Functions as a passageway for air and food, provides a resonating

chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils, which participate in
immunological responses to foreign invaders

Pharynx

Nasopharynx (upper part) connects with the two internal nares and has two
openings that lead into the auditory (eustachian) tubes.

Posterior wall contains the pharyngeal tonsil

Nasopharynx exchanges air with the nasal cavities and receives mucusdust
packages.

Cilia of its pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium move the mucusdust

packages toward the mouth

Nasopharynx also exchanges small amounts of air with the auditory tubes to equalize
air pressure between the pharynx and middle ear

Oropharynx (middle portion) opens into the mouth and nasopharynx

Two pairs of tonsils, the palatine tonsils and lingual tonsils, are found in the oropharynx.

Laryngopharynx (lower portion) connects with both the esophagus and the
larynx (voice box)

Thus, the oropharynx and laryngopharynx both serve as passageways for air as well as
for food and drink

Respiratory Organs in the

Head and Neck

Organs of the Respiratory

System
The larynx (voice box) connects the pharynx and the

trachea. It contains the thyroid cartilage (Adams apple),

the epiglottis, the cricoid cartilage, arytenoid
cartilages, false vocal cords, and true vocal cords.

Pitch is controlled by the tension of the vocal folds. If

they are pulled taut, they vibrate more rapidly and a higher
pitch results. Lower sounds are produced by decreasing
the muscular tension.

The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx to the

primary bronchi. It is composed of smooth muscle and Cshaped rings of cartilage and is lined with pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium.

Larynx

Larynx

Also called voice box

Short tube of cartilage lined by mucous membrane that connects the pharynx with the trachea

It lies in the midline of the neck anterior to the fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrae (C4 to C6)

Thyroid cartilage, which consists of hyaline cartilage, forms the anterior wall of the larynx
(Adams apple)

Epiglottis is a large, leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered with epithelium
and attached to the anterior rim of the thyroid cartilage and hyoid bone

Superior leaf portion of the epiglottis is unattached and is free to move up and down like a trap door

During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx rise

Elevation of the pharynx widens it to receive food or drink; elevation of the larynx causes
the epiglottis to move down and form a lid over the larynx, closing it off (if not you cough)

The cricoid cartilage is a ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx
and is attached to the first tracheal cartilage

Two arytenoid cartilages located above the cricoid cartilage

They attach to the true vocal cords and pharyngeal muscles and function in voice
production

Trachea

The trachea (windpipe) is a tubular passageway for air that is located anterior to the
esophagus

Extends from the larynx to the upper part of the fifth thoracic vertebra (T5), where it
divides into right and left primary bronchi

The wall of the trachea is lined with mucous membrane and is supported by cartilage

The mucous membrane provides the same protection against dust as the membrane
lining the nasal cavity and larynx

The cilia in the upper respiratory tract move mucus and trapped particles down toward the
pharynx, but the cilia in the lower respiratory tract move mucus and trapped particles up
toward the pharynx

Cartilage layer consists of 16 to 20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage stacked one on top
of another

The open part of each C-shaped cartilage ring faces the esophagus and permits it to
expand slightly into the trachea during swallowing

The solid parts of the C-shaped cartilage rings provide a rigid support sot he tracheal wall
does not collapse inward and obstruct the air passageway

The rings of cartilage may be felt under the skin below the larynx.

Organs of the Respiratory

The trachea divides into a right main (primary) bronchus,
System

which goes to the right lung, and a left main (primary)

bronchus, which goes to the left lung.

The main bronchi divide to form the lobar (secondary)

bronchi, one for each lobe of the lung. (The right lung has
three lobes; the left lung has two.) The lobar bronchi continue
to branch, forming still smaller bronchi, called segmental
(tertiary) bronchi, that divide several times, ultimately giving
rise to smaller bronchioles.

Bronchioles, in turn, branch into even smaller tubes called

terminal bronchioles. Because all of the airways resemble an
upside-down tree with many branches, their arrangement is
known as the bronchial tree.

Bronchi and Bronchioles

Trachea divides into right and left primary

bronchi (singular is bronchi)

Contain incomplete rings of cartilage

Pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic vessels

and nerves

When entering the lung the bronchus divide

into secondary bronchi

Then tertiary bronchi

Then bronchioles

Then terminal bronchioles

Called BRONCHIAL TREE

As we go down the bronchial tree the lining

changes and dust etc. is now removed by
macrophages

Cartilage eventually disappears and smooth

muscle increases (muscle spasms)

Organs of the Respiratory

System
Lungs are paired organs in the thoracic cavity

enclosed by the pleural membrane. The parietal

pleura is the outer layer; the visceral pleura is the
inner layer. The right lung has three lobes separated
by two fissures; the left lung has two lobes separated
by one fissure plus a depression, the cardiac notch.

Each lobe consists of lobules, which contain

lymphatic vessels, arterioles, venules, terminal
bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar
ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.

Exchange of gases (O2, and CO2) in the lungs occurs

across the respiratory membrane.

Lungs

Spongy organs

Pleural membrane (double layered) serous

membrane that is around the lungs

Outer layer attached to the thoracic cavity

and diaphragm (parietal pleura/pain)

Inner layer is attached to lungs (visceral

pleura)

Space in between called the pleural cavity

(fluid)

Branching of Airways from

the Trachea and Lobes of the
Lungs

Lobule of the Lung

Structure of an Alveolus

Structure of an Alveolus

Anatomy Overview:
Respiratory Organs

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Anatomy Overview:
The Respiratory System

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Anatomy Overview:
Respiratory Tissues

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PULMONARY
VENTILATION

Pulmonary Ventilation

Pulmonary ventilation or breathing, the flow of

air between the atmosphere and the lungs,
occurs due to differences in air pressure.
We inhale or breathe in when the pressure inside
the lungs is less than the atmospheric air
pressure.
We exhale or breathe out when the pressure
inside the lungs is greater than the atmospheric
air pressure.
Contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles
create the air pressure changes that power
breathing.

Pulmonary Ventilation

The diaphragm contracts when it receives nerve impulses

from the phrenic nerves. The SCMs, scalenes, and pectoralis
minors contribute to forced inhalation. Forced exhalation
involves contraction of the internal intercostals, external
oblique, internal oblique, transverse abdominis, and rectus
abdominis.

The minute ventilation is the total volume of air inhaled and

exhaled each minute.

The lung volumes are tidal volume, inspiratory reserve

volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume.

Lung capacities are combinations of specific lung volumes.

Muscles of Inhalation and

Exhalation

Pressure Changes during

Breathing

Spirogram

Modified
Breathing
Movemen
ts

Animation:
Pulmonary Ventilation

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EXCHANGE OF
OXYGEN AND
CARBON DIOXIDE

Exchange of Oxygen and

Carbon Dioxide

Air is a mixture of gasesnitrogen, oxygen, water vapor,

carbon dioxide, and otherseach of which contributes to the total
air pressure. The pressure of a specific gas in a mixture is called
its partial pressure.

In external and internal respiration, O2 and CO2 move from

areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure.

External respiration (pulmonary gas exchange) is the exchange

of gases between alveolar air and pulmonary blood capillaries.

Internal respiration (systemic gas exchange) is the exchange of

gases between systemic tissue capillaries and systemic tissue
cells.

Changes in
Partial
Pressures
of O2 and
CO2

Animation:
Gas Exchange

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TRANSPORT OF
RESPIRATORY
GASES

Transport of Respiratory
The blood transports gases between the lungs
Gases

and body tissues. When O2 and CO2 enter the

blood, certain physical and chemical changes occur
that aid in gas transport and exchange.
About 98.5 percent of blood O2 is bound to
hemoglobin in red blood cells.
The association of O2 and hemoglobin is affected by
PO2, pH, temperature, and PCO2.
Carbon dioxide is transported in three ways: About
7 percent is dissolved in plasma, 23 percent
combines with the globin of hemoglobin, and 70
percent is converted to bicarbonate ions (HCO3).

Transport of
O2 and CO2
in the
Blood

Animation:
Gas Transport

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CONTROL OF
BREATHING

Control of Breathing

The respiratory center, can be divided into two

principal areas on the basis of location and function:
1. The medullary respiratory center in the medulla

oblongata.
2. The pontine respiratory group in the pons.

The inspiratory area sets the basic rhythm of

respiration.
Respirations may be modified by several factors:
cortical influences; chemoreceptors; limbic system
stimulation; proprioceptor stimulation; temperature;
pain; irritation of airways; the inflation reflex (stretch
receptors).

Locations
of Areas of
the
Respiratory
Center

Roles of the Medullary

Respiratory Center

Roles of the Medullary

Respiratory Center

Negative
Feedback
Control of
Breathing

Anatomy Overview:
Structures that Control Respiration

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EXERCISE AND
THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM

Exercise and the Respiratory

System
During exercise, the respiratory and

cardiovascular systems make adjustments in

response to both the intensity and duration of
the exercise.
The abrupt increase in ventilation at the
start of exercise is due to neural changes that
send excitatory impulses to the inspiratory
area in the medulla oblongata. The more
gradual increase in ventilation during
moderate exercise is due to chemical and
physical changes in the bloodstream.

AGING AND THE

RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM

Aging and the Respiratory

System

With advancing age, the airways and tissues

of the respiratory tract, including the alveoli,
become less elastic and more rigid; the
chest wall becomes more rigid as well. The
result is a decrease in lung capacity.

Elderly people are more susceptible to

pneumonia, emphysema, bronchitis, and
other pulmonary disorders.

Homeostasis-Self Study
Andrew Wolf-You Tube

https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=zgq4nobohD0&l
ist=PL4419B64FD3842497&index=1
https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=m5MmcHkp4lg&l
ist=PL4419B64FD3842497&index=2
https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=ycD_saiEnHY&i
ndex=3&list=PL4419B64FD3842497
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=HN59qlgevYA&index=4&list=PL4419B64F

Khan Academy

http://www.khanacademy.org/partnercontent/mit-k12/mit-k12biology/v/homeostasis

Homeostasis Maintaining
Limits

Homeostasis ensures that the bodys internal environment

remains constant despite changes inside and outside the
body

Homeostasis is a dynamic state of equilibrium

Homeostasis is necessary for normal body function and

life

Homeostatic imbalance = disease

Animation:
Communication, Regulation and Homeostasis

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Parts of a Feedback
System

Negative
Feedback
System