Manufacturing Processes

Dr N K Singh
Associate Professor (Workshop)
Department of Mech Engg
I S M Dhanbad

Importance of the subject

Involved

product.

in conversion of raw material into useful

Basic manufacturing process

Casting

process
Forming process
Machining process
Powder metallurgy
Joining process, assembly and finishing

Carpentry

Timber
Timber

is the basic material used for any

class of woodworking.

Growth:-The

growth of the tree trunk

happens upwards and outwards, and in
general, growth is directed to maximize the
light on the leaves.

Growth rings
As

a tree grows, the wood is laid down in

concentric rings. Where a definite growing
season exists (temperate climates)
The growth pattern for each season gives
light coloured wood closer to the centre of the
tree and darker coloured wood nearer the
outside. The disparity between these two
types of wood gives a ring for each growing
season. At least one such ring is laid down
each year.

Growth rings

The wood growth cells are

in a thin layer between the
bark and the sapwood. This
thin layer is called the
cambium.
It lays down new bark on
the outside, and new wood
cells on the inside. As the
tree grows, each layer of
wood cells remains in its
original position except the
cambium. It is continually
moving outwards.

Sapwood is the newest

wood in a tree. When
the wood cells are first
laid down, they have
very thin walls and
large hollow voids in the
middle. The outermost
wood carry sap from
the leaves to the
cambium where it is
used to manufacture
new cells.

The mature cells blocked, and carrying extractives

no longer grow in wall thickness and are now known
as heartwood or truewood.
It has the colour of the mature wood because of the
extractives. As cells are converted from
sapwood to heartwood, the boundary between
sapwood and heartwood is steadily moving away
from the centre of the tree at roughly the same rate
as new cells are being formed.

Darker wood is heartwood, lighter wood is sapwood

Classification of WOOD
Hardwoods

and softwoods

The main differences between hardwoods and

softwoods are botanical, and relate to the way
the tree grows and the timber is laid down.

Hardwoods and softwoods

Feature

Hard Wood

Soft Wood

Colour

darker coloured wood

light in colour

Leaves

broad leaves

conifers and have more

needle-like leaves.

density

thicker cell walls.

higher densities

Lesser density

Weight

Heavy

Light

Resin content

Less

Few are resinous

Workability

Hard

Easy

Growth

Slow

Fast

Annual rings

Closed rings and often

indistinct

Well space ring and quit

distinct

Strength

Good tensile and shear

resistance

Good tensile resistance

but week across the
fibers

Refractoriness

Does not catch fire very soon

(Sal, Pyingads and Ash)

Catches fire very soon

(Deodar, Pine and Fir)

Example

Shisham, Sal, Teak, Kiker,

mango, Walnut, Pyingads
and Ash.

Deodar, Pine, Kail,

Haldu, and Fir etc.

Seasoning of Wood
Water is stored in wood in two main forms:
As

free water in the vessels and/or cells,

used to move nutrients within the tree.
As cell (or bound) water, which is an integral
part of the cell walls.

Seasoning Process
The

process of seasoning removes all of

the free water and most of the bound water.
In the removal of the bound water, the wood
cells change in size and shape, so this part of
the process must be carried out with careful
control over drying rate.

Advantage of Seasoning
Tends

to

have

superior dimensional

stability
Increasing stiffness,
Bending strength and compression strength
Lighter in weight

Methods of Seasoning

Air seasoning
Kiln seasoning
Chemical seasoning

Air seasoning

The traditional method

of seasoning timber
was to stack it in air
and let the heat of the
atmosphere and the
natural air movement
around the stacked
timber
remove
the
moisture.

Air seasoning
Air-drying

is necessarily a slow process,

particularly for hardwoods, typically taking 6
to 9 months to reach a moisture content in
the range 20% to 25%.

Kiln seasoning

Kiln
seasoning
accelerates the process
of seasoning by using
external energy to drive
the moisture out.

Kiln seasoning
The

timber is placed inside a chamber in

which the conditions can be varied to give
best seasoning results. Air is circulated
around the charge (stacked timber) and the
temperature and humidity can be varied to
give optimum drying.
Typically the timber may be in the kiln for a
period of between two days to one week.

Chemical seasoning
The

process involves soaking the green

timber (as soon as it is cut) in a hygroscopic
chemical for about a day, which slows down
the rate of moisture loss and minimizes the
risk of inducing the internal stresses which
cause checking to occur during the
subsequent air-drying.

Chemical seasoning
Chemical

seasoning is used for very high

value applications such as rifle butts, golf
club heads and carvings, where the timber is
required to be completely free of surface
checks.

Preservation of Wood
Keep

timber dry
Protect timber from sun
Isolate timber from pests

CARPENTARY TOOLS

Marking and measuring tools

Cutting tools
Planning tools
Boring tools
Holding and miscellaneous tools

Marking and measuring tools

Measuring tools are used to mark and check work for
size and alignment.

These tools include

The steel tape or rule:

The folding wood rule

Marking and measuring tools

The square and the

tri-square are used
to align or test right
angles

Marking and measuring tools

Spring divider is used

for making arcs and
circles

Marking and measuring tools

Marking Gauge is
used to mark lines
parallel to a edge.

Cutting tools

Saws: -

A saw is specified by :
1.
2.

Length of its blade measured along the toothed edge

pitch of teeth (mm)

1. Rip Saw

Use for woodcutting

with the wood grain.
Usually 24" to 26" long
with 4 to 7 teeth per
inch (tpi)
Cut very aggressively
and leave slightly rough
edge

2. Cross Cut

Use for woodcutting

across the wood grain
Usually 24" to 26" long
with 8 to 11 tpi
Don't cut as
aggressively as rip
saws but leave a much
smoother edge

3. Panel Saw (Short cut or box

Saw)

Use for woodcutting

across the wood grain
Usually shorter than
regular cross cut saws,
for easy portability

4. Bow Saw

Use for woodcutting in

any direction
Have a tubular steel
frame with a ribbon-like,
high-tension steel blade

5. Coping Saw

Use
for
woodcutting,
joints

fine
coping

Have
deep
steel
tension frames and
very thin blades to
allow the user to make
intricate cuts at extreme
angles

6. Back Saw

Use
for
fine
woodcutting,
molding
and trim.
Have a rigid piece
along the back to
prevent the saw from
kinking during use.

7. Dovetail Saw

Use for wood joint

cutting

Have rigid backs like

backsaws,
but
are
usually smaller and
have finer teeth

8. Keyhole Saw

Use for circle and curve

cutting in wood
Have very thin, pointed
blades for cutting small,
tight radius curves and
holes

Chisels

Types of Chisels

BEVEL edged chisels

are slightly undercut
making them easy to
push into corners.
They are normally used
for finishing dovetail
joints.

Types of Chisels

FIRMER chisels have a

blade with a rectangular
cross-section.
This means that they
are stronger and can
be used for tougher
/heavier work.

Types of Chisels

A PARING chisel is a
longer, thinner chisel
which can be pushed
into long joints such as
housing joints.
It is used for cleaning
up the joint and to
make it an accurate fit.

Use of Bevel Chisel

Types of Chisels
Mortise chisel:
Thick, rigid blade with
straight cutting edge
and square sides to
make mortises and
similar joints.
Blades vary in width
from 3-16 mm.

Types of Chisels
Gouges:

Used for cutting

CURVED sections

Planning tools
Planes

are used to smooth and shape wood

by means of a sharp steel blade (housed in a
wood or metal casing) set at an angle to the
surface to be planed.

The

depth of the cut can be varied by

adjusting the distance the blade protrudes
beneath the bottom surface of the plane.

Planning tools
Planes

are made in many sizes, and special

planes are sometimes used to cut channels.
Files of various shapes are also used to
smooth and shape wood

Planning tools

Types of planes

Jack plane
A

general-purpose bench plane, used for

general smoothing of the edges and sizing of
wood.

Jack

planes perform both the work of smooth

planes and trying planes.

Jack Plane

Jack planes are about

15 inches long, and the
blade usually has a
moderately
curved
edge.
In preparing stock, the
jack plane is used after
the scrub plane and
before
the
smooth
plane.

Jack Plane

Trying plane

Finishing plane and

used for very fine cuts.
550-650 mm long

Smoothing plane or smooth

plane

The smoothing plane is

typically the last plane
used on a wood
surface - when used
properly, the finish it
gives
will
be
far
superior to that made
by
sandpaper
or
scrapers

smooth plane
The

smoothing plane is typically 8 to 10

inches long, has a tight mouth and is held
with both hands.
The iron of the smoothing plane is generally
sharpened straight across or with a slightly
arched cutting edge (or at least with rounded
corners) to prevent unsightly grooves from
being gouged in the wood surface as it is
planed.

Spokeshaves

Small planes used for

cleaning up quick
curves

Boring tools
Used

for making round holes

Selection is based upon the types and
purpose of the hole

Types of Boring Tools

1.

Gimlet (used to bore

small holes)

Types of Boring Tools

2. Bradawl (used to bore small holes)

Types of Boring Tools

3.

Brace

Used for holding and turning a bit for boring holes.

Having jaw to grip the bit

Types of braces

Wheel brace

Types of braces

Ratchet brace

Striking Tools
Striking

tools includes HAMMERS and

MALLETS

Ball-penned hammer
Penned
Shaft

head

Warrington Hammer

Mostly used for

bench work and all
light jobs.

Head is cast steel,

face and peen being
tempered and shaft
made of wood

Claw Hammer

Having a flat striking

face; the other end of
the head is curved,
and divided into two
claws for pulling nails

Mallet

Wooden headed
hammer of round or
rectangular crosssection.

Used to give light

blows to the cutting
tools having wooded
handle
such
as
chisels and gouges.

Holding tools
To

enable the woodworkers to cut jobs

accurately.

Types of Holding Devices

1. Bench Vice

Types of Holding Devices

2.G-Clamp

Types of Holding Devices

Slash

Clamp

Carpentry joints
1.

Halving Joints (half-lap joint)

To secure the corners and intersection of the

framing.

2. Mortise and Tenon joint

Consist

of a rectangular peg (tenon) fitting

into a rectangular hole (mortise).
Tenon

Mortise

3. Bridle joints.
Also

called open mortise and tenon joints

4. Butt joint
The

butt joint is very weak and looks poor. It

is used only for the very roughest of work
such as nailing seed trays together

5. Dowel Joint

Wooden pegs (can be

metal
in
other
circumstances)
are
used
to
connect
different
pieces
of
wood.
They are versatile and
can be used for frame
construction.

6. Dovetail joint

dovetail is a very strong

Joint but it is difficult to
cut.
The tails are the larger
pieces and the pins the
smaller. This joint gets
tighter if pulling
pressure is put on it. It
is used for boxes and
drawers.

Thank you