Radiation Detection

Instrumentation Fundamentals

Radiation Detection
Instrumentation Fundamentals
Includes
Basic operation principles of different types of
radiation detectors;
Physical processes underlying the principles
of operation of these devices, and
Comparing and selecting instrumentation best
suited for different applications.

General Principles of
Radiation Detection

Outline

Gas-Filled Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Solid State Detectors
Others

Gas-Filled Detectors Components

Variable voltage source
Gas-filled counting chamber
Two coaxial electrodes well insulated from each
other
Electron-pairs

produced by radiation in fill gas

move under influence of electric field
produce measurable current on electrodes, or
transformed into pulse

Gas- Filled Detectors - one

example
wall
End
window
Or wall

fill gas
Anode (+)
Cathode (-)

Output

or

Indirect Ionization Process

wall

e
e

e
e

Incident gamma photon

Direct Ionization Process

wall

beta (-)

Incident
charged
particle

e
e

e
-

e
-

Competing Processes recombination

+

Output

+
e

Voltage versus Ions Collected

Number
of Ion
Pairs
collected

Recombination
region

Ionization region

Saturation Voltage
100 % of initial
ions are collected
Voltage

Saturation Current
The point at which 100% of ions begin to be
collected
All ion chambers operate at a voltage that
produces a saturation current
The region over which the saturation current is
produced is called the ionization region
It levels the voltage range because all charges
are already collected and rate of formation is
constant

Observed Output: Pulse Height

Ions collected
Number of ionizations relate to specific
ionization value of radiation
Gas filled detectors operate in either
current mode
Output is an average value resulting from detection
of many values

pulse mode
One pulse per particle

Pulse Height Variation

Alpha
Particles

Pulse
Height

Beta
Particles
Gamma Photons

Detector Voltage

Ionization Region Recap

Pulse size depends on # ions produced in
detector.
No multiplication of ions due to secondary
ionization (gas amplification is unity)
Voltage produced (V) = Q/C
Where
Q is total charge collected
C is capacitance of the ion chanber

Ionization Chambers, continued

Chambers construction determines is operating
characteristics
Physical size, geometry, and materials define its
ability to maintain a charge
Operates at a specific voltage
When operating, the charge collected due to
ionizing events is
Q = CV

Ionization Chambers, continued

The number of ions (N) collected can
be obtained once the charge is
determined:
N=Q/k
Where k is a conversion factor
(1.6 x 10-19C/e)

Other Aspects of Gas-Filled

Detectors
Accuracy of measurement
Detector Walls composed of air equivalent material or
tissue equivalent

Wall thickness
must allow radiation to enter/ cause interactions
alpha radiation requires thin wall (allowed to pass)
gammas require thicker walls (interactions needed)

Sensitivity
Air or Fill gas Pressure
see next graph

Current vs. Voltage for Fill Gases in a

Cylindrical Ion Chamber
100

Relative
10
Current
(%)

Air at high pressure

Helium at high pressure

Air at low pressure

1.0

Helium at low pressure

0.1
Applied Voltage (volts)

Correcting Ion Chambers for T, P

Ion chambers operate in pressurized
mode which varies with ambient
conditions
Detector current (I) and exposure rate X
are functions of gas temperature and
pressure as well as physical size of
detector.

Correcting Ion Chambers for T, P

Detector current (I) and exposure rate (X)
related by:

Tstp

I kV
T

X
P
stp

k, conversion factor
detector gas density
V detector volume
STP standard temp and pressure (273K, 760
torr (1 atm)

Voltage
Continuous Discharge Region

Geiger-Mueller Region

Limited Proportional
Region

Proportional Region

Ionization Region

Recombination Region

Pulse Height

Operating Regions of Gas-Filled

Detectors

Values of k, Conversion Factor

Calculated as
(2.58 x 10- 4C/kg-R)(1 h / 3600 s)( 1 A s / C)
Yields 7.17 x 10- 8 A-h/R-kg

Examples

Proportional Counters
Operates at higher voltage than ionization
chamber
Initial electrons produced by ionization
are accelerated with enough speed to cause
additional ionizations
cause additional free electrons
produces more electrons than initial event

Process is termed: gas amplification

Recombination Region

Pulse Height

Pulse-Height Versus Voltage

Ionization
Region

Proportional Region

Voltage

Distinguishing Alpha & Beta

Proportional counters
can distinguish between different radiation types
specifically alpha and beta-gamma

Differential detection capability

due to size of pulses produced by initial ionizing
events
requires voltage setting in range of 900 to 1,300 volts
alpha pulses above discriminator
beta/gamma pulses too small

Alpha & Beta-Gamma Plateau

Ionization
Current

Beta-Gamma Plateau
Alpha Plateau

Detector Voltage

Gas Flow Proportional Counters

Common type of proportional counter
Fixed radiation detection instrument used in
counting rooms
Windowed or windowless
Both employ 2 geometry
essentially all radiation emitted from the surface of the
source enters active volume of detector

Windowless
used for alpha detection

Gas-Flow Proportional Counter

Gas-Flow Proportional Counter

Fill gas
outlet

Fill gas
inlet
Detector

anode

sample

Sample planchet

(windowoptional)
O-ring

Gas Flow Proportional,

continued
Fill gas
selected to enhance gas multiplication
no appreciable electron attachment
most common is P-10 (90% Argon and 10%
methane)

Geiger Mueller Detectors

Operate at voltages above proportional
detectors
Each primary ionization
produces a complete avalanche of ions throughout
the detector volume
called a Townsend Avalanche
continues until maximum number of ion pairs are
produced
avalanche may be propagated by photoelectrons
quenching is used to prevent process

Geiger Mueller Detectors,

continued
No proportional relationship between
energy of incident radiation and number of
ionizations detected
A level pulse height occurs throughout the
entire voltage range

Advantages/Disadvantages of GasFilled Detectors

Ion Chamber: simple, accurate, wide range,
sensitivity is function of chamber size, no dead
time
Proportional Counter: discriminate hi/lo LET,
higher sensitivity than ion chamber
GM Tube: cheap, little/no amplification, thin
window for low energy; limited life

Points to Remember for Gas-filled

Detectors
Know operating principles of your detector
Contamination only?
High range?
Alpha / beta detection?
Dose rate?
Alpha/beta shield?

Points to Remember for Gas-filled

Detectors
Power supply requirements
Stable?
Batteries ok?

Temperature, pressure correction

requirements
Calibration
Frequency
Nuclides

Issues with Gas Filled Detectors: Dead

Time
Minimum time at which detector recovers
enough to start another avalanche (pulse)
The dead time may be set by:
limiting processes in the detector, or
associated electronics

Dead time losses

can become severe in high counting rates
corrections must be made to measurements

Term is used loosely - beware!

Issues with Gas Filled Detectors:

Recovery Time
Time interval between dead time and full
recovery
Recovery Time = Resolving time- dead
time

Issues with Gas Filled Detectors:

Resolving Time
Minimum time interval that must elapse
after detection of an ionizing particle
before a second particle can be detected.

Correcting for Dead Time

For some systems (GMs) dead time may be
large.
A correction to the observed count rate can
be calculated as:

Where

Ro
Rc
1 R 0T

T is the resolving time

R0 is the observed count rate and
RC is the corrected count rate

Relationship among dead time,

recovery time, and resolving time
0

100

200

300

Pulse
Height
Dead
Time

Recovery time
Resolving time

Time, microseconds

400

500

Geiger Tube as Exposure Meter

Exposure is the parameter measuring
the ionization of air.
Geiger tube measures ionization pulses
per second - a count rate.
The number of ionizations in the Geiger
tube is a constant for a particular energy
but is energy dependent.

COMPENSATED GEIGER DOSE

RATE METERS
GMs have a high sensitivity but are very
dependent upon the energy of photon radiations.
The next graph illustrates the relative response
(R) of a typical GM vs photon energy (E).
At about 60 keV the response reaches a
maximum which may be thirty times higher than
the detectors response at other radiation
energies.

Energy Response of GM Uncompensated

R
20

1.2
1.0
0.8

10

100

1000

E, keV

COMPENSATED GEIGER DOSE RATE

METERS
Detectors poor energy response may be
corrected by adding a compensation sheath
Thin layers of metal are constructed around the GM to
attenuate the lower photon energies, where the
fluence per unit dose rate is high, to a higher degree
than the higher energies.
The modified or compensated response, shown as a
dashed line on the next graph, may be independent of
energy within 20% over the range 50 keV to 1.25
MeV.
Compensation sheaths also influence an instruments
directional (polar) response and prevent beta and very
low energy photon radiations from reaching the
Geiger tube.

Energy Response of GM Uncompensated

and Compensated
R
20

1.2
1.0
0.8

10

100

1000

E, keV

Example Polar Response

Example of Compensated GM
RadEye component

RadEye
Pocket meter
low power components
automatic self checks
essential functions accessed while wearing protective
gloves.
Alarm-LED can be seen while the instrument is worn
in a belt-holster.
Instrument also equipped with a built in vibrator and
an earphone-output for silent alarming or use in very
noisy environment.

Number of optional components

RadEye
Options
RadEye PRD - High Sensitivity Personal
Radiation Detector
The RadEye PRD is 5000 - 100000 times more
sensitive than typical electronic dosimeter.
The RadEye PRD uses Natural Background
Rejection (NBR) technology. It is the only
instrument of its type and size to achieve this.
Probably a plastic scintillator more about this
later

RadEye
Options
RadEye G - Wide Range Gamma Survey Meter for
Personal Radiation Protection
linearity over 6 decades of radiation intensity: from
background level to 5 R/h
overrange indication up to 1000 R/h.
RadEye G incorporates a large energy compensated GMtube for dose rate measurement for gamma and x-ray.

NBR = Natural Background Rejection

The NBR measurement technology has been
developed by Thermo Electron for the supression of
alarms caused by variations of the natural
background.

SCINTILLATION
DETECTORS

Scintillators
Emit light when irradiated
promptly (<10-8s)
fluorescence

delayed (>10-8s)
phosphorescence

Can be

liquid
solid
gas
organic
inorganic

Energy

Basis of Scintillation - Energy

Structure in an Atom

Excited state
Ground state, last
filled (outer) orbital

Energy

Basis of Scintillation - Energy

Structure in a Molecule

EA 1

Excited state
A1

EB 1
EB 0
EA 0

Ground state
B1
Bo

Ao

Interatomic distance

Scintillator Properties
A large number of different scintillation crystals
exist for a variety of applications.
Some important characteristics of scintillators
are:

Density and atomic number (Z)

Light output (wavelength + intensity)
Decay time (duration of the scintillation light pulse)
Mechanical and optical properties
Cost

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Liquid scintillation counting

Standard laboratory method for measuring radiation from betaemitting nuclides.

Samples are dissolved or suspended in a "cocktail" containing an
aromatic solvent (historically benzene or toluene, and small
amounts of other additives known as fluors.
Beta particles transfer energy to the solvent molecules, which in turn
transfer their energy to the fluors;
Excited fluor molecules dissipate the energy by emitting light.
Each beta emission (ideally) results in a pulse of light.
Scintillation cocktails may contain additives to shift the wavelength of
the emitted light to make it more easily detected.

Samples are placed in small transparent or translucent (often glass)

vials that are loaded into an instrument known as a liquid
scintillation counter.

 Examples
Differences
CH3

Toluene

Energy

Organic Scintillators

EA1

A1

EB 1
EB 0
EA0

Anthracene

Excited state
Ground state
B1
Bo
Ao

Interatomic distance

Inorganic (Crystal) Scintillators

Most are crystals of alkali metals (iodides)

NaI(Tl)
CsI(Tl)
CaI(Na)
LiI(Eu)
CaF2(Eu)

Impurity in trace amounts

activator causes luminescence
e.g., (Eu) is 10-3 of crystal

Organic vs. Inorganic

Scintillators
Inorganic scintillators have greater:
light output
longer delayed light emission
higher atomic numbers
than organic scintillators

Inorganic scintillators also

linear energy response (light output is
energy absorbed)

Solid Scintillators
Solids have
Lattice structure (molecular level)
Quantized energy levels
Valence bands
Conduction bands

Crystal Lattice
e-

Ge
As+
Shared
electron pair

Creation of Quantized Bands

Conduction Band
-

Eo + Eg
EF

+
+
Valence Band

Eo

Introduction of Impurities
Conduction Band
Donor
impurity
levels

Acceptor
impurity
levels

~0.01 eV
~1 eV

~ 0.01eV

Valence Band

Detecting Scintillator Output:PhotoCathode & Photomultiplier

Tubes
Radiation interaction in scintillator produces
light (may be in visible range)
Quantification of output requires light
amplification and detection device(s)
This is accomplished with the:
Photocathode
Photomultiplier tube

Both components are

placed together as one unit
optically coupled to the scintillator

Cutaway diagram of solid-fluor

scintillation detector

Cutaway diagram of solid-fluor

scintillation
detector
Photocathode
Gamma ray

Scintillation
event

Fluor crystal NaI (Tl)

Reflector housing

Photomultiplier tube
Dynodes

Photoelectrons

Major components of PM Tube

Photocathode material
Dynodes
electrodes which eject additional electrons after being
struck by an electron
Multiple dynodes result in 106 or more signal enhancement

Collector
accumulates all electrons produced from final dynode

Resistor
collected current passed through resistor to generate
voltage pulse

Generalized Detection System

using a Scintillator
(Crystal &
Photomultiplier)

Scaler

Detector
PreAmp

High
Voltage

Amplifier

Oscilloscope

Discriminator

MultiChannel
Analyzer

Liquid Scintillation Systems

Used to detect low energy (ie., low range)
radiations
beta
alpha

Sample is immersed in scintillant

Provides 4 geometry
Quenching can limit output
chemical
color quenching
optical quenching

Chemical Quenching
Dissipation of energy prior to transfer from
organic solvent to scintillator
Reduces total light output
Common chemical quenching agents
Dissolved oxygen is most common
Acids
Excessive concentration of one component (e.g.,
primary fluor)
Too little scintillation media
halogenated hydrocarbons

Color Quenching
Absorption of light photons after they are
emitted from the scintillator
Reduces total light output
Common color quenching agents:
light absorbing contaminants
blood
urine
tissues samples

Optical Quenching
Absorption of light photons after they are
emitted from the scintillator liquid and
before they reach the PMT
Reduces total light output
Common optical quenching agents:
fingerprints
condensation
dirt on the LS vials

Circuitry in LSC systems

Shielded counting well
Two (or more) PMTs optically coupled to
sample well
Coincidence circuitry to compare PMT
pulses
Pulse Summation Circuit
adds signals from PMTs
gates single pulse to amplifier
summation circuit doubles height of signal

Coincidence Circuitry
Used to reduce noise
Limit thermionic emissions
spontaneous emissions from within the PMT

Directly opposing PMT tubes

connected to coincidence circuit

gated outputs from both tubes
only simultaneous signal from both will be accepted
only one signal is not accepted
simultaneous signals are summed

Applied to Liquid Scintillation Systems

Coincidence & Anticoincidence

Circuitry
Sometimes desirable to discard pulses due to
some radiations & accept only those from a
single type of particle.
Examples:
detection of pair-production events (accept only
simultaneous detection of 180 apart photons)
detection of internal conversion electrons
radioisotopes with IC electrons emit gammas & X-rays.
A single detector counts IC and compton electrons.
Use X-rays that are emitted simultaneously with IC & block
Compton events

A simple coincidence circuit

Amplification
Timing

Detector
Source

Multi-channel
Analyzer

Coincidence
Unit

Detector

Gate
Scaler

Amplification

Timing

After Tsoulfanidis, 1995

Basic LSC System

Beckman
LS 6500 Liquid
Scintillation Counting
System.

Single & summed pulse spectra

With pulse summation

Counts/
Min
Without
pulse summation
Pulse Height

Correcting for Quench

Quench correction
any quenching that occurs in sample results in shift of
pulse height spectrum toward lower values

Techniques
purge sample with N2, CO2, or Ar (removes O2
chemical quench
bleach or decolorize sample (reduces color quench)
handle LSC vials by top/bottom & wiping vials clean
prior to counting (reduces optical quenching)

Alternative Methods
Channel ratio method
two energy windows established
known amount of radioactivity is added to varying
concentrations of quenching agent
ratio of net counts in upper channel over lower
channel vs quench correction is plotted

Disadvantage
low count rates require longer counting times
multiple calibration curves may be required for
range
quenching agents

Alternative Methods
Internal standard method

older technique
sample is counted
known quantity of radioisotope is added
sample recounted
Efficiency = (cpm(std+sample) cpm(sample))/dpm(std)

Most accurate method

requires ability to add same amount of
radionuclide each time
more costly & time consuming

Alternative Methods
External standard method
relies on gamma source (226Ra or 133Ba) adjacent to sample
two sets of calibration curves are derived
sample standard count is plotted versus amount of quench
agent
Net External Counts - [External & Sample Std cpm] [Sample Standard cpm]

Disadvantages
least accurate of available methods
samples must be counted twice
sample uniformly dispersed in counting vials

Pulse Height Discrimination

Light produced per disintegration of a
radioactive atom:
is related to particle type (alpha, beta, gamma),
and energy (keV - MeV).

Pulse height increases with energy

Example (follows) beta emitters of varying
energies:
3H, max 18.6 keV
14C, max 156 keV
32P, max 1.71 MeV

Pulse Height Discrimination

for three common beta emitters
3

14

32

Count
Rate

Pulse Height

Background & Efficiency

Checks on LSC
Essential - LSCs are essentially proportional
counters; change in potential impacts gain
Efficiency depends on several variables:
temperature
quenching ( determine counting efficiency for every
sample)

Background & efficiency checks needed with

every run
contamination
efficiency changes

Field Applications for Liquid and Solid

Scintillation Counters
Solid Scintillators
in-situ measurement of low to high energy gammas
laboratory systems
spectroscopy
SCA or MCA mode

Liquid Scintillators
wipe tests
contaminants in solids (concrete)
contaminants in aqueous/organic liquids

Selecting Scintillators - Density and

Atomic number
Efficient detection of gamma-rays requires
material with a high density and high Z
Inorganic scintillation crystals meet the
requirements of stopping power and
optical transparency,
Densities range from roughly 3 to 9 g/cm3
Very suitable to absorb gamma rays.
Materials with high Z-values are used for
spectroscopy at high energies (>1 MeV).

Linear
Attenuation of
NaI

Relative Importance of Three Major

Interaction Mechanisms

The lines show the values of Z and hv for which the two neighboring
effects are just equal

Light output of Scintillators

Scintillation material with a high light
output is preferred for all spectroscopic
applications.
Emission wavelength should be matched
to the sensitivity of the light detection
device that is used (PMT of photodiode).

Decay time
Scintillation light pulses (flashes) are usually
characterized by a fast increase of the intensity
in time (pulse rise time) followed by an
exponential decrease.
Decay time of a scintillator is defined by the time
after which the intensity of the light pulse has
returned to 1/e of its maximum value.
Most scintillators are characterized by more than
one decay time and usually, the effective
average decay time is given
The decay time is of importance for fast counting
and/or timing applications

Mechanical and Optical Properties

NaI(Tl) is one of the most important scintillants.
Hygroscopic
Can only be used in hermetically sealed metal containers
Some scintillation crystals may easily crack or cleave under mechanical
pressure
CsI is plastic and will deform.
Important aspects of commonly used scintillation materials are listed on
the next 2 slides.
The list is not exhaustive, and each scintillation crystal has its own specific
application.
For high resolution spectroscopy, NaI(Tl), or CsI(Na) (high light output)
are normally used.
For high energy physics applications, the use of bismuth germanate
Bi4Ge3O12 (BGO) crystals (high density and Z) improves the lateral
confinement of the shower.
For the detection of beta-particles, CaF 2(Eu) can be used instead of
plastic scintillators (higher density).

Commonly Used Scintillators

Density
[g/cm3]

Emission
Max [nm]

Decay
Constant
(1)

Refractive
Index (2)

Conversion
Efficiency
(3)

Hygroscopic

NaI(Tl)

3.67

415

0.23 s

1.85

100

yes

CsI(Tl)

4.51

550

0.6/3.4 s

1.79

45

no

CsI(Na)

4.51

420

0.63 s

1.84

85

slightly

CsI
undoped

4.51

315

16 ns

1.95

4-6

no

CaF2 (Eu)

3.18

435

0.84 s

1.47

50

no

LiI (Eu)

4.08

470

1.4 s

1.96

35

yes

Li - glass

2.6

390 - 430

60 ns

1.56

4-6

no

4.64

390

3 - 5 ns

1.48

5-7

yes

Material

CsF

(1) Effective average decay time For -rays.

(2) At the wavelength of the emission maximum.
(3) Relative scintillation signal at room temperature for -rays when coupled to a photomultiplier tube
with a Bi-Alkalai photocathode.

Commonly Used Scintillators

Material

Density
[g/cm3]

Emission
Maximum
[nm]

Decay
Constant
(1)

Refractive
Index (2)

Conversion
Efficiency
(3)

Hygrosc
opic

BaF2

4.88

315
220

0.63 s
0.8 ns

1.50
1.54

16
5

no

YAP (Ce)

5.55

350

27 ns

1.94

35 - 40

no

GSO (Ce)

6.71

440

30 - 60 ns

1.85

20 - 25

no

BGO

7.13

480

0.3 s

2.15

15 - 20

no

CdWO4

7.90

470 / 540

20 / 5 s

2.3

25 - 30

no

Plastics

1.03

375 - 600

1 - 3 s

1.58

25 - 30

no

(1) Effective agerage decay time For -rays.

(2) At the wavelength of the emission maximum.
(3) Relative scintillation signal at room temperature for -rays when coupled to a photomultiplier tube
with a Bi-Alkalai photocathode.

Afterglow
Defined as the fraction of scintillation light still present for
a certain time after the X-ray excitation stops.
Originates from the presence of millisecond to even hour long
decay time components.
Can be as high as a few % after 3 ms in most halide scintillation
crystals .
CsI(Tl) long duration afterglow can be a problem for many
applications.
Afterglow in halides is believed to be intrinsic and correlated to
certain lattice defects.

BGO and Cadmium Tungstate (CdWO4) crystals are

examples of low afterglow scintillation materials

Scintillators - Neutron Detection

Neutrons do not produce ionization
directly in scintillation crystals
Can be detected through their interaction
with the nuclei of a suitable element.
6LiI(Eu) crystal -neutrons interact with 6Li
nuclei to produce an alpha particle and 3H
which both produce scintillation light that can
be detected.
Enriched 6Li containing glasses doped with Ce
as activator can also be used.

Neutron Detection

Neutron Detection
Conventional neutron meters surround a
thermal neutron detector with a large and
heavy (20 lb) polyethylene neutron
moderator.
Other meters utilizes multiple windows
formed of a fast neutron scintillator (ZnS in
an epoxy matrix), with both a thermal
neutron detector and a photomultiplier
tube.

Radiation Damage in Scintillators

Radiation damage results inchange in
scintillation characteristics caused by prolonged
exposure to intense radiation.
Manifests as decrease of optical transmission of
a crystal
decreased pulse height
deterioration of the energy resolution

Radiation damage other than activation may be

partially reversible; i.e. the absorption bands
disappear slowly in time.

Radiation Damage in Scintillators

Doped alkali halide scintillators such as NaI(Tl)
and CsI(Tl) are rather susceptible to radiation
damage.
All known scintillation materials show more or
less damage when exposed to large radiation
doses.
Effects usually observed in thick (> 5 cm)
crystals.
A material is usually called radiation hard if no
measurable effects occur at a dose of 10,000
Gray. Examples of radiation hard materials are
CdWO4 and GSO.

Emission Spectra of Scintillation

Crystals
Each scintillation material has characteristic
emission spectrum.
Spectrum shape is sometimes dependent on the
type of excitation (photons / particles).
Emission spectrum is important when choosing
the optimum readout device (PMT /photodiode)
and the required window material.
Emission spectrum of some common scintillation
materials shown in next two slides.

Emission Spectra of Scintillators

Emission Spectra of Scintillators

Temperature Influence on the

Scintillation Response
Light output (photons per MeV gamma) of most
scintillators is a function of temperature.
Radiative transitions, responsible for the production of
scintillation light compete with non-radiative
transitions (no light production).
In most light output is quenched (decreased) at higher
temperatures.
An exception is the fast component of BaF2 where
intensity is essentially temperature independent.

Temperature Influence on the

Scintillation Response

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Choosing a Scintillator
Following table lists characteristics such as high density,
fast decay etc.
Choice of a certain scintillation crystal in a radiation
detector depends strongly on the application.
Questions such as :
What is the energy of the radiation to measure ?
What is the expected count rate ?
What are the experimental conditions (temperature, shock)?

Material

Important Properties

Major Applications

NaI(Tl)

Very high light output, good

energy resolution

General scintillation counting, health

physics, environmental monitoring,
high temperature use

CsI(Tl)

Noon-hygroscopic, rugged,
long wavelength
emission

Particle and high energy physics,

general radiation detection,
photodiode readout, phoswiches

CsI(Na)

High light output, rugged

Geophysical, general radiation

detection

CsI

Fast, non-hygroscopic,
radiation hard, low light
output

Physics (calorimetry)

Low Z, high light outut

detection, , phoswiches

CdWO4

Very high density, low

afterglow, radiation hard

DC measurement of X-rays (high

intensity), readout with
photodiodes, Computerized
Tomography (CT)

Plastics

Fast, low density and Z,

high light output

Particle detection, beta detection

undoped

CaF2(Eu)

Material Important Properties

LiI(Eu)

High neutron cross-section,

high light output

Li High neutron cross-section,

glass
non-hygroscopic

BaF2

Ultra-fast sub-ns UV emission

Major Applications
Thermal neutron detection and
spectroscopy
Thermal neutron detection
Positron life time studies, physics
research, fast timing

YAP(Ce) High light output, low Z, fast

MHz X-ray spectroscopy, synchrotron

physics

GSO(Ce High density and Z, fast,

)
radiation hard

Physics research

BGO

High density and Z

Particle physics, geophysical research,

PET, anti-Compton spectrometers

CdWO4

Very high density, low

afterglow, radiation hard

DC measurement of X-rays (high

intensity), readout with
photodiodes, Computerized
Tomography (CT)

Plastics

Fast, low density and Z, high

light output

Particle detection, beta detection

PRACTICAL SCINTILLATION
COUNTERS
Highly sensitive surface contamination probes
incorporate a range phosphors
Examples include:
zinc sulphide (ZnS(Ag)) powder coatings (510
mgcm2) on glass or plastic substrates or coated
directly onto the photomultiplier window for detecting
alpha and other heavy particles;
cesium iodide (CsI(Tl)) that is thinly machined (0.25
mm) and that may be bent into various shapes;
and plastic phosphors in thin sheets or powders fixed
to a glass base for beta detection.

PRACTICAL SCINTILLATION
COUNTERS
Probes (A and B previous slide) and their associated
ratemeters (C) tend not to be robust.
Photomultipliers are sensitive to shock damage and are
affected by localized magnetic fields.
Minor damage to the thin foil through which radiation
enters the detector allows ambient light to enter and
swamp the photomultiplier.
Cables connecting ratemeters and probes are also a
common problem.
Very low energy beta emitters (for example 3H) can be
dissolved in liquid phosphors in order to be detected.

43-93 Alpha/Beta Scintillator

The Model 43-93 is a 100 cm dual
phosphor alpha/beta scintillator that is
designed to be used for simultaneously
counting alpha and beta contamination

43-93 Alpha/Beta Scintillator

INDICATED USE: Alpha beta survey

SCINTILLATOR: ZnS(Ag) adhered to 0.010" thick plastic scintillation
material
WINDOW: 1.2 mg/cm recommended for outdoor use
WINDOW AREA:
Active - 100 cm
Open - 89 cm

EFFICIENCY (4pi geometry): Typically 15% - Tc-99; 20% - Pu-239; 20% S-90/Y-90
NON-UNIFORMITY: Less than 10%
BACKGROUND: Alpha - 3 cpm or less
Beta - Typically 300 cpm or less (10 R/hr field )
CROSS TALK:
Alpha to beta - less than 10%
Beta to alpha - less than 1%

43-93 Alpha/Beta Scintillator

COMPATIBLE INSTRUMENTS: Models 2224, 2360
TUBE: 1.125"(2.9cm) diameter magnetically shielded
photomultiplier
OPERATING VOLTAGE: Typically 500 - 1200 volts
DYNODE STRING RESISTANCE: 100 megohm
CONNECTOR: Series C (others available )
CONSTRUCTION: Aluminum housing with beige
polyurethane enamel paint
TEMPERATURE RANGE: 5F(-15C) to 122F(50C)
May be certified to operate from -40F(-40C) to
150F(65C)
SIZE: 3.2"(8.1 cm)H X 3.5"(8.9 cm)W X 12.2"(31 cm)L
WEIGHT: 1 lb (0.5kg)

44-2 Gamma Scintillator

The Model 44-2 is a 1" X 1" NaI(Tl)
Gamma Scintillator that can be used with
several different instruments including
survey meters, scalers, ratemeters, and
alarm ratemeters

44-2 Gamma Scintillator

INDICATED USE: High energy gamma detection

SCINTILLATOR: 1" (2.5 cm) diameter X 1" (2.5 cm) thick sodium iodide
(NaI)Tl scintillator
SENSITIVITY: Typically 175 cpm/microR/hr (Cs-137)
COMPATIBLE INSTRUMENTS: General purpose survey meters,
ratemeters, and scalers
TUBE: 1.5:(3.8cm) diameter magnetically shielded photomultiplier
OPERATING VOLTAGE: Typically 500 - 1200 volts
DYNODE STRING RESISTANCE: 100 megohm
CONNECTOR: Series "C" (others available )
CONSTRUCTION: Aluminum housing with beige polyurethane enamel paint
TEMPERATURE RANGE: -4 F(-20 C) to 122 F(50 C)
May be certified for operation from -40 F(-40 C) to 150 F(65 C)
SIZE: 2" (5.1 cm) diameter X 7.3" (18.5 cm)L
WEIGHT: 1 lb (0.5kg)

Scintillation Detectors
Best:
Measure low gamma dose rates

Also:
Measure beta dose rates (with corrections)

However:
Somewhat fragile and expensive

CANNOT:
Not intended for detecting contamination, only
radiation fields

Semi-Conductor Detectors

Idealized Gamma-Ray
Spectrum in NaI
theoretical
Counts
per
Energy
Interval

Actual

Energy

Eo

Components of Spectrum
Counts
per
Energy
Interval

Backscatter
Peak

X-ray
Peak

Compton edge

Annihilation
Peak
Energy

Eo

Photopeak

NaI(Tl) vs. HPGE

NaI(Tl) vs. HPGE

Semiconductor Detectors
Solids have

lattice structure (molecular level)

quantized energy levels
valence bands
conduction bands

Semiconductors have lattice structure

similar to inorganic scintillators
composed of Group IVB elements
ability to easily share electrons with adjoining atoms

Crystal Lattice

e-

Ge

As+

Shared
electron pair

Basic Nature of
Semiconductors
Schematic view
of lattice of Group IVB element Si

Dots represent electron pair bonds between the Si

atoms
Si

Si

Si

Si
Si

Si

Basic Nature, contd

Schematic diagram of energy levels of crystalline Si.

Energy

Conduction Band
1.08 eV

Forbidden Gap

Valence Band

Pure Si is a poor conductor of electricity

Basic Nature, contd

Schematic view of lattice of Group IV element Si, doped
with P (Group VB) as an impurity note extra electron

Si

Si

Si

P
Si

Si

Basic Nature, contd

Schematic diagram of disturbed energy levels of crystalline Si.

Si with Group V impurities like P is said to be an n-type silicon because of the negative charge carriers (the electrons)

Conduction Band
Energy

0.05 eV Donor level

Valence Band

Basic Nature, contd

Schematic view of lattice of Group IV element Si, doped with
B (Group IIIB) as an impurity note hole in electron orbital

Si

Si

Si

B
Si

Si

Basic Nature, contd

Schematic diagram of disturbed energy levels of crystalline Si

with B impurity.

Energy

Conduction Band
0.08 eV Acceptor level

Valence Band

Si with Group III impurities is said to be a p-type silicon

because of the positive charge carriers (the holes)

Occupation of energy states for

n and p-type semiconductors
As donor
impurity
levels

Ga acceptor
impurity
levels

Conduction Band
0.013 eV
0.011eV

0.67 eV

Valence Band

After Turner

Operating Principles of
Semiconductor detectors
Si semiconductor is a layer of p-type Si in contact with ntype Si.
What happens when this junction is created?
Electrons from n-type migrate across junction to fill holes
in p-type
Creates an area around the p-n junction with no excess of
holes or electrons
Called a depletion region

Apply (+) voltage to n-type and (-) to p-type:

Depletion region made thicker
Called a reverse bias

Energy-level diagram for n-p

junction
Conduction
Band
n-type

Junction
region

p-type

Valence
Band

After Turner

Detector specifics
Depletion region acts as sensitive volume of
the detector
Passage of ionizing radiation through the
region

Creates holes in valence band

Electrons in conduction band
Electrons migrate to positive charge on n side
Holes migrate to negative voltage on p side
Creates electrical output

Requires about 3.6 eV to create an electron

hole pair in Si

Detector Specifics, contd

Reverse bias n-p junction is good detector
Depletion region
Has high resistivity
Can be varied by changing bias voltage

Ions produced can be quickly collected

Number of ion pairs collected is proportional to energy
deposited in detector
Junction can be used as a spectrometer

Types of detectors:

HPGe
GeLi (lithium drifted detectors)
Surface barrier detectors
Electronic dosimeters

SOLID STATE DETECTORS RECAP

Solid state detectors utilize semiconductor
materials.
Intrinsic semiconductors are of very high purity
and extrinsic semiconductors are formed by
adding trace quantities (impurities) such as
phosphorus (P) and lithium (Li) to materials such
as germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
There are two groups of detectors:
junction detectors and bulk conductivity detectors.

SOLID STATE DETECTORS

Junction detectors are of either

diffused junction or
surface barrier type:
an impurity is either diffused into, or spontaneously oxidized
onto, a prepared surface of intrinsic material to change a layer of
p-type semiconductor from or to n-type.
When a voltage (reverse bias) is applied to the surface barrier
detector it behaves like a solid ionization chamber.
Bulk conductivity detectors are formed from intrinsic semiconductors
of very high bulk resistivity (for example CdS and CdSe).
They also operate like ionization counters but with a higher density
than gases and a ten-fold greater ionization per unit absorbed dose.
Further amplification by the detector creates outputs of about one
microampere at 10 mSvh1

Solid State Counters

A - very thin metal
(gold) electrode.
P - thin layer of p-type
semiconductor.
D - depletion region,
310 mm thick formed
by the voltage, is free
of charge in the
absence of ionizing
radiations.
N - n-type
semiconductor.
B - thin metal
electrode which
provides a positive
potential at the n-type
semiconductor.

PRACTICAL SOLID STATE

DETECTORS
The main applications for semiconductor detectors are in
the laboratory for the spectrometry of both heavy
charged (alpha) particle and gamma radiations.
However, energy compensated PIN diodes and special
photodiodes are used as pocket electronic (active)
dosimeters.
PIN diode: Acronym for positive-intrinsic-negative diode.
A photodiode with a large, neutrally doped intrinsic region
sandwiched between p-doped and n-doped semiconducting
regions.
A PIN diode exhibits an increase in its electrical conductivity as a
function of the intensity, wavelength, and modulation rate of the
incident radiation. Synonym PIN photodiode.

PIN Diodes

Ordinary Silicon PIN photodiodes can serve as detectors for X-ray

and gamma ray photons. The detection efficiency is a function of the
thickness of the silicon wafer. For a wafer thickness of 300 microns
(ignoring attenuation in the diode window and/or package) the
detection efficiency is close to 100% at 10 KeV, falling to
approximately 1% at 150 KeV(3).
For energies above approximately 60 KeV, photons interact almost
entirely through Compton scattering. Moreover, the active region of
the diode is in electronic equilibrium with the surrounding medium--the
diode package, substrate, window and outer coating, etc., so that
Compton recoil electrons which are produced near--and close enough
to penetrate--the active volume of the diode, are also detected.
For this reason the overall detection efficiency at 150 KeV and above
is maintained fairly constant (approximately 1%) over a wide range of
photon energies.
Thus, a silicon PIN diode can be thought of as a solid-state equivalent
to an ionization-chamber radiation detector.

PRACTICAL SOLID STATE

DETECTORS
Specially combined thin and thick detectors provide the
means to identify charged particles.
used to monitor for plutonium in air, discriminating against alpha
particles arising from natural radioactivity, and for monitoring for
radon daughter products in air.
Small physical size and insensitivity to gamma radiation have
found novel applications: inside nuclear fuel flasks monitoring for
alpha contamination and checking sealed radium sources for
leakage.

Bulk conductivity detectors can measure high dose rates

but with minute-long response times. A Ge(Li) detector
operated at 170C is capable of a very high gamma
resolution of 0.5%. The temperature dependence and
high cost add to their impracticality.

Another type of Solid State /

Scintillation system
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters

Thermoluminescence
(TL) is the ability to convert energy from
radiation to a radiation of a different wavelength,
normally in the visible light range.
Two categories
Fluorescence - emission of light during or immediately
after irradiation
Not a particularly useful reaction for TLD use
Phosphorescence - emission of light after the
irradiation period. Delay can be seconds to months.

TLDs use phosphorescence to detect radiation.

Thermoluminescence
Radiation moves electrons into traps
Heating moves them out
Energy released is proportional to
radiation
Response is ~ linear
High energy trap data is stored in TLD for
a long time

TL Process
Conduction Band (unfilled shell)

Phosphor atom

Incident
radiation

Electron trap
(metastable state)

Valence Band (outermost electron shell)

TL Process, continued
Conduction Band

Thermoluminescent
photon

Phosphor atom

Heat Applied

Valence Band (outermost electron shell)

Output Glow Curves

A glow curve is obtained from heating

Light output from TLis not easily interpreted
Multiple peaks result from electrons in "shallow" traps
Peak results as traps are emptied.
Light output drops off as these traps are depleted.
Heating continues
Electrons in deeper traps are released.
Highest peak is typically used to calculate dose
Area under represents the radiation energy deposited in
the TLD

Trap Depths - Equate to LongTerm

Stability of Information

Time or temperature

TLD Reader Construction

To High
Voltage

DC Amp
To ground

PMT
Recorder or meter
Filter
TL material

Heated
Cup
Power Supply

Advantages
Advantages (as compared to film dosimeter badges)
includes:
Able to measure a greater range of doses
Doses may be easily obtained
They can be read on site instead of being sent away for
developing
Quicker turnaround time for readout
Reusable
Small size
Low cost

TLD Disadvantages

Lack of uniformity batch calibration needed

Storage instablity
Fading
Light sensitivity
Spurious TL (cracking, contamination)
Reader instability
No permanent record

NON-TL Dosimeters
LUXEL DOSIMETER
"Optically Stimulated Luminescence"
(OSL) technology
Minimum detectable dose
1 mRem for gamma and x-ray radiation,
10 mRem for beta radiation.

Non TL Dosimeters, continued

Uses thin layer of Al2O3:C
Has a TL sensitivity 50 times greater than
TLD-100 (LiF:Mg,Ti)
Almost tissue equivalent.
Strong sensitivity to light
Thermal quenching.
Readout stimulated using laser
Dosimeter luminesces in proportion to
radiation dose.

Summary
Wide range of detection equipment
available
Understand strengths and weaknesses of
each
No single detector will do everything
Well get to selection issues in the next
two days

Suggested Reading
Glenn F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and
Measurement, John Wiley & Sons.
Hernam Cember, Introduction to Health
Physics, McGraw Hill.
Nicholas Tsoulfanidis, Measurement and
Detection of Radiation, Taylor & Francis.
C.H. Wang, D.L.Willis, W.D. Loveland,
Radiotracer Methodology in the Biological,
Environmental and Physical Sciences,
Prentice-Hall