SUBJECT CODE : ME6302

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
Scope and objective of the subject:
1
This subject discuss the various aspects of
manufacturing technology practiced in
mechanical industries such as joining, forming,
casting andHajra
other
processes.
Textbook(s)
choudhury,
Elements of workshop
T1

Technology, Vol. I and II, Media Promoters

Pvt Ltd., Mumbai, 2001

Reference
book(s)R1

P.N Rao, Manufacturing Technology, Tata McGrawHill Publishing Limited, II Edition,2002

R2

P.C Sharma, A text book of production

technology, S. Chand and company, IV Edition,
2003

R3

Rajput R.K, A text book of Manufacturing

Technology, Lakshmi Publications, 2007

CONTENTS
CHAPTER-1 METAL CASTING PROCESSES
Introduction

to manufacturing process
Moulding materials and their requirements;
Patterns: Types and various pattern
materials.
Casting processes: Various casting
methods, viz.., sand casting, investment
casting, pressure die casting, centrifugal
casting, continuous casting, thin roll casting;
Mould design;
Casting defects and their remedies.

SELECTION OF MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

To produce the product with least cost and within reasonable time without

compromising the quality of the product, it is imperative to select the right type of
manufacturing process

Factors to be considered while selecting a manufacturing process are

1. Manufacturing cost
2. Production volume and production rate
3. Characteristics and properties of workpeice material
4. limitations on shape and size
5. Surface finish and tolerance requirements
6. functional requirements of the product

Introduction:
Metal

Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping

methods known. Casting means pouring molten metal
into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and
allowing it to solidify.
When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out
from the mold either by breaking the mold or taking the
mold apart.
The solidified object is called the casting.
By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and
rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other
manufacturing process.
The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of
some heat resisting material.
Sand is most often used as it resists the high
temperature of the molten metal.
Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast
products.

Foundry:

Foundry or casting
is the process of
producing metal/alloy
component parts of
desired shapes by
pouring the molten
metal/alloy into a
prepared mould (of

Basic Features:
Pattern and Mould
A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a
replica of the final product and is used for
preparing mould cavity.
Mould material should posses refractory
characteristics and with stand the pouring
temperature.
When the mold is used for single casting, it
made of sand and known as expendable mold.
When the mold is used repeatedly for number
of castings and is made of metal or graphite
are called permanent mould.
For making holes or hollow cavities inside a
casting, cores made of either sand or metal
are used.

Melting and Pouring:

Several types of furnaces are available for
melting metals and their selection
depends on the type of metal, the
maximum temperature required and the
rate and the mode of molten metal
delivery.
Before pouring provisions are made for
the escape of dissolved gases. The gating
system should be designed to minimize
the turbulent flow and erosion of mould
cavity. The other important factors are
the pouring temperature and the pouring
rate.

Solidification and Cooling:

The properties of the casting
significantly depends on the
solidification time cooing rate.
Shrinkage of casting, during cooling
of solidified metal should not be
restrained by the mould material,
otherwise internal stresses may
develop and form cracks in casting.
Proper care should be taken at the
design stage of casting so that
shrinkage can occur without casting
defects.

Removal, Cleaning, Finishing and

Inspection:
After the casting is removed from the
mould it is thoroughly cleaned and the
excess material usually along the
parting line and the place where the
molten metal was poured, is removed
using a potable grinder.
White light inspection, pressure test,
magnetic particle inspection,
radiographic test, ultrasonic inspection
etc. are used

Schematic diagram of casting

mould:

Advantages of metal casting:

Casting

is one of the most versatile

manufacturing process.
Casting provides the greatest freedom of
design in terms of shape, size and the
product quantity.
Casting imparts uniform directional
properties and better vibration capacity to
the cast parts.
Casting produces machinable parts.
Shapes difficult and uneconomic to obtain
otherwise may be achieved through casting
process.

Limitations of casting:
Dimensional

accuracy and surface finish of

the castings made by sand casting
processes are a limitation to this
technique.
Many newcasting processes have been
developed which can take into
consideration the aspects of dimensional
accuracy and surface finish.
Some of these processes are die casting
process, investment casting process,
vacuum-sealed molding process, and shell
molding process.
The metal casting process is a labor
intensive process

Applications of Casting:
Transportation
Turbine

vehicles

vanes
Power generators
Railway crossings
Agricultural parts
Aircraft jet engine parts
Sanitary fittings
Communication, Construction and
Atomic Energy applications, etc..

Core and core prints:

Castings

are often required to have holes, recesses,

etc. of various sizes and shapes.
These impressions can be obtained by using cores.
So where coring is required, provision should be
made to support the core inside the mold cavity.
Core prints are used to serve this purpose.
The core print is an added projection on the pattern
and it forms a seat in the mold on which the sand
core rests during pouring of the mold.
The core print must be of adequate size and shape
so that it can support the weight of the core during
the casting operation.
Depending upon the requirement a core can be
placed horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside

Pattern having core prints.

Pattern Making:
A

Pattern is a model or the replica

of the object to be cast.
Except for the various allowances
a pattern exactly resembles the
casting to be made.
A pattern is required even if one
object has to be cast.

Functions of Patterns:

A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for

the purpose of making a casting.
A Pattern may contain projections
known as core prints if the casting
requires a core and need to be made
hollow.
Patterns properly made and having
finished and smooth surfaces reduce
casting defects.
Properly constructed patterns
minimize overall cost of the casting.

Selection of Pattern
Materials:

The following factors assist in

selecting proper pattern
material:
No. of castings to be produced.
Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.
Shape, complexity and size of casting.
Casting design parameters.
Type of molding materials.
The chance of repeat orders.
Nature of molding process.

The pattern material should be:

1.Easily

worked, shaped and joined.

2.Light in weight.
3.Strong, hard and durable.
4.Resistant to wear and abrasion .
5.Resistant to corrosion, and to
chemical reactions.
6.Dimensionally stable and unaffected
by variations in temperature and
humidity.
7.Available at low cost.

1. Wood Patterns:
Advantages:
Inexpensive
Easily available in large quantities
Easy to fabricate
Light in weight
Thay can be repaired easily
Easy to obtain good surface finish

Limitations:

Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling

Possess poor wear resistance
Abraded easily by sand action
Obsorb moisture, consequently get wraped
Cannot withstand rough handling

These are used where the no. of

castings to be produced is small
and pattern size is large.

2. Metal Patterns:
Advantages:
Do not absorb moisture
More stronger
Possess much longer life
Do not wrap, retain their shape
Greater resistance to abrasion
Accurate and smooth surface finish
Good machinability

Limitations:
Expensive
Not easily repaired
Ferrous patterns get rusted
Heavy weight

These are employed

where large no. of castings have to
be produced from same patterns.

3. Plastic Patterns:
Advantages:
Durable
Provides a smooth surface
Moisture resistant
Does not involve any appreciable change in size or
shape
Light weight
Good strength
Wear and corrosion resistance
Easy to make
Abrasion resistance
Good resistance to chemical attack
Limitations:
Plastic patterns are Fragile
These are may not work well when subject to
conditions of severe shock as in machine molding
(jolting).

4. Plaster Patterns:
Advantages:
It can be easily worked by using wood working tools.
Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty.
It has high compressive strength.

Plaster may be made out of

Plaster of paris or Gypsum
cement.

Plaster mixture is poured

into a mould made by a sweep
pattern or a wooden master
pattern, in order to obtain a
Plaster pattern.

5. Wax patterns:
Advantages:
Provide very good surface finish.
Impatr high accuracy to castings.
After being molded, the wax pattern is not
taken out of the mould like other patterns;
rather the mould is inverted and heated; the
molten wax comes out and/or is evaporated.
Thus there is no chance of the mould cavity
getting damaged while removing the
pattern.

Wax patterns find

applications in Investment casting
process.

Types of Patterns:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Single piece pattern.

Split piece pattern.
Loose piece pattern.
Match plate pattern.
Sweep pattern.
Gated pattern.
Skeleton pattern
Follow board pattern.
Cope and Drag pattern.

(a)Split pattern
(b) Follow-board
(c) Match Plate
(d) Loose-piece
(e) Sweep
(f) Skeleton
pattern

1. Single piece (solid)

pattern:

Made from one piece and does not

contain loose pieces or joints.
Inexpensive.
Used for large size simple castings.
Pattern is accommodated either in
the cope or in the drag.
Examples:
1. Bodies of regular shapes.
2. stuffing box of steam engine.

2. Split piece pattern:

3.Loose piece pattern:

Certain

patterns cannot be withdrawn

once they are embedded in the molding
sand. Such patterns are usually made
with one or more loose pieces for
facilitating from the molding box and
are known as loose piece patterns.
Loose parts or pieces remain attached
with the main body of the pattern, with
the help of dowel pins.
The main body of the pattern is drawn
first from the molding box and
thereafter as soon as the loose parts are
removed, the result is the mold cavity.

4. Match plate pattern:

It

consists of a match plate, on either side

of which each half of split patterns is
fastened.
A no. of different sized and shaped
patterns may be mounted on one match
plate.
The match plate with the help of locator
holes can be clamped with the drag.
After the cope and drag have been
rammed with the molding sand, the match
plate pattern is removed from in between
the cope and drag.
Match plate patterns are normally used in
machine molding.

5. Sweep pattern:
A

sweep pattern is just a form made on a

wooden board which sweeps the shape of the
casting into the sand all around the
circumference. The sweep pattern rotates
about the post.
Once the mold is ready, Sweep pattern and the
post can be removed.
Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making
a full, large circular and costly threedimensional pattern.
Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and
labour as compared to making a full pattern.
A sweep pattern is preferred for producing
large casting of circular sections and
symmetrical shapes.

6. Gated pattern:
The

sections connecting different

patterns serve as runner and gates.
This facilitates filling of the mould with
molten metal in a better manner and at
the same time eliminates the time and
labour otherwise consumed in cutting
runners and gates.
A gated pattern can manufacture many
casting at one time and thus it is used
in mass production systems.
Gated patterns are employed for
producing small castings.

castings

Gating system

7. Skeleton pattern:
A

skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired

shape which may be S-bend pipe or a chute
or something else. The skeleton frame is
mounted on a metal base
The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and
is thus a wooden work.
The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is
rammed.
A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired
shape to the sand and removes extra sand.
Skeleton patterns are employed for producing
a few large castings.
A skeleton pattern is very economical,
because it involves less material costs.

8. Follow board pattern:

A

follow board is a wooden board and is

used for supporting a pattern which is
very thin and fragile and which may give
way and collapse under pressure when the
sand above the pattern is being rammed.
With the follow board support under the
weak pattern, the drag is rammed, and
then the fallow board is with drawn, The
rammed drag is inverted, cope is mounted
on it and rammed. During this operation
pattern remains over the inverted drag
and get support from the rammed sand of
the drag under it.
Follow boards are also used for casting
master patterns for many applications.

9. Cope and Drag

patterns:
A cope and drag pattern is another form of

split pattern.
Each half of the pattern is fixed to a
separate metal/wood plate.
Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is
molded separately in a separate molding
box by an independent molder or moulders.
The two moulds of each half of the pattern
are finally assembled and the mould is
ready for pouring.
Cope and drag patterns are used for
producing big castings which as a whole
cannot be conveniently handled by one
moulder alone.

Pattern Allowances:
A pattern is larger in size as
compared to the final casting, because
it carries certain allowances due to
metallurgical and mechanical reasons
for example, shrinkage allowance is the
result of metallurgical phenomenon
where as machining, draft, distortion,
shake and other allowances are
provided on the patterns because of
mechanical reasons.

Types of Pattern
Allowances:

1.Shrinkage Allowance:
All most all cast metals shrink or contract
volumetrically on cooling.

The metal shrinkage is of

two types:
1. Liquid Shrinkage:
it refers to the reduction in volume when the
metal changes from liquid state to solid state at the
solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage;
riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are
provided in the mold.
2. Solid Shrinkage:
it refers to the reduction in volume caused
when metal loses temperature in solid state. To
account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on
the patterns.

2. Machining Allowance:
A Casting is given an allowance for
machining, because:
Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat
treatment; scales etc., thus formed need to be removed.
ii. It is the intended to remove surface roughness and
other imperfections from the castings.
iii.It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
iv.Surface finish is required on the casting.
i.

How much extra metal or how much

machining allowance should be provided,
depends on the factors listed below:

Nature of metals.
ii. Size and shape of casting.
iii.The type of machining operations to be employed for
cleaning the casting.
iv.Casting conditions.
v. Molding process employed
i.

3. Draft or Taper
Allowance:

It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to

parting line.
Draft allowance is given so that the pattern
can be easily removed from the molding
material tightly packed around it with out
damaging the mould cavity.
The amount of taper depends upon:
Shape and size of pattern in the depth
direction in contact with the mould
cavity.
ii. Moulding methods.
iii. Mould materials.
iv. Draft allowance is imparted on internal
as well as external surfaces; of course it
is more on internal surfaces.
i.

Fig: taper in design

4. Distortion or cambered
allowance:
A casting will distort or wrap if
:
i. It is of irregular shape,
ii. All it parts do not shrink uniformly i.e., some
parts shrinks while others are restricted
from during so,
iii. It is u or v-shape,
iv. The arms possess unequal thickness,
v. It has long, rangy arms as those of propeller
strut for the ship,
vi. It is a long flat casting,
vii. One portion of the casting cools at a faster
rate as compared to the other.

5. Shake allowance:

A patter is shaken or rapped by striking the

same with a wooden piece from side to side.
This is done so that the pattern a little is
loosened in the mold cavity and can be easily
removed.
In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould
cavity which results in a bigger sized casting.
Hence, a ve allowance is provided on the
pattern i.e., the pattern dimensions are kept
smaller in order to compensate the
enlargement of mould cavity due to rapping.
The magnitude of shake allowance can be
reduced by increasing the tapper.

Moulding Materials
Major part of Moulding material in sand casting
are
1. 70-85% silica sand (SiO2)
2. 10-12% bonding material e.g., clay cereal etc.
3. 3-6% water
Requirements of molding sand are:
(a) Refractoriness
(b) Cohesiveness
(c) Permeability
(d) Collapsibility
The performance of mould depends on following
factors:
(a) Permeability
(b) Green strength
(c) Dry strength

Types of Moulding
Sand
Moulding sands are classified according to

their use. These are classified and described

below :
Green Sand
It is a mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30
percent clay, having quantity of water 6 to 8
percent. Green sand in its natural state
contains enough moisture to give it sufficient
bonding property. It is soft, light, porous and
retains the shape easily when squeezed in
the hand. Moulds prepared by this sand are
known as green sand moulds which are used
for small and medium castings only.

Dry Sand
When moisture from green sand mould
is removed, it is known as dry sand
mould and is used for large size of
casting. By drying the mould in moulding
box it becomes stronger and compact.
Facing Sand
It is used directly next to the surface of
pattern. When the mould is poured with
the molten metal it comes directly in
contact with the molten metal. As it is
subjected to most severe conditions, it
must possess high strength and
refractoriness. It is made of silica sand
and clay in fine powder form.

Loam Sand
It is a mixture of clay (about 50%),
sand and water (about 18-20%) to
obtain a thin plastic paste which is
used to plaster on moulds with soft
bricks and hardens on drying. This is
particularly employed for loam
moulding usually for rough and large
castings.
Backing Sand
It is the sand obtained from mould and
is used again and again. Due to its
black colour which is due to burning
and addition of coal dust, it is also
known as black sand.

Parting Sand
It is fine sharp dry sand used to keep
the green sand from sticking to the
pattern and also to keep the
moulding boxes (drag and cope)
separated.
Core Sand
This is silica sand mixed with core oil
which is composed of linseed oil, light
mineral oil, resin and other binding
materials. For the sake of economy,
pitch or flours and water may also be
used in case of large cores.

Molding Material and

Properties:

A large variety of molding materials

is used in foundries for
manufacturing molds and cores.
They include molding sand, system
sand or backing sand, facing sand,
parting sand, and core sand. The
choice of molding materials is based
on their processing properties. The
properties that are generally
required in molding materials are:

1. Refractoriness:
It is the ability of the molding material
to with stand high temperatures
(experienced during pouring) with out
1. Fusion,
2. Cracking, buckling or scabbing,
3. Experiencing any major physical
change.
Silica

sand have high

refractoriness.

2. Permeability:
During

pouring and subsequent solidification

of a casting, a large amount of gases and
steam is generated.
These gases are those that have been
absorbed by the metal during melting, air
absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam
generated by the molding and core sand.
If these gases are not allowed to escape from
the mold, they would be entrapped inside the
casting and cause casting defects.
To overcome this problem the molding
material must be porous.
Proper venting of the mold also helps in
escaping the gases that are generated inside
the mold cavity.

3. Green Strength:
The

molding sand that contains

moisture is termed as green sand.
The green sand particles must have
the ability to cling to each other to
impart sufficient strength to the
mold.
The green sand must have enough
strength so that the constructed
mold retains its shape.
Green strength helps in making and
handling the moulds.

4. Dry Strength:
A

mould may either intentionally be dried,

or a green sand mould may lose its
moisture and get dried while waiting for
getting poured or when it comes in
contact with molten metal being poured.
The sand thus dried must have dry
strength to
1. Withstand erosive forces due to
molten metal,
2. Withstand pressure of molten metal,
3. Retain its exact shape,and
4. Withstand the metallostatic
pressure of the liquid material.

5. Hot Strength:

6. Collapsibility:
Collapsibility

determines the
readiness with which the molding
sand,
1. Automatically gets collapsed
after the casting solidifies, and
2. Breaks down in knock out and
cleaning operations.
If the mould or core does not
collapse, it may restrict free
contraction of solidifying metal and
cause the same to tear or crack.

7. Flowability:
It

is the ability of the molding

sand to get compacted to a
uniform density.
Flowability assists molding sand
to flow and pack all-around the
pattern and take up the required
shape.
Flowability increases as clay and
water contents increase.

8. Adhesiveness:
It is the property of molding sand
owing to which, it
1. Sticks with the walls of
molding boxes,
2. Sticks with gaggers, and
3. Thus makes it possible to mold
cope and drag.

9. Fineness:
Finer

sand mould resist metal

penetration and produce smooth
casting surfaces.
Fineness and permeability are in
conflict with each other and
hence they must be balanced for
optimum results.

Molding Sand
Composition:

The main ingredients of any

molding sand are:
Base sand,
Binder, and
Moisture

1. Base Sand:
Silica

sand is most commonly

used base sand.
Other base sands that are also
used for making mold are zircon
sand, Chromite sand, and olivine
sand.
Silica sand is cheapest among all
types of base sand and it is easily
available.

2. Binder:
Binders

are of many types such as:

1. Clay binders,
2. Organic binders and
3. Inorganic binders

Clay

binders are most commonly used binding

agents mixed with the molding sands to provide
the strength.

The

most popular clay types are:

Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and
Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more
water which increases its bonding power.

3. Moisture:
Clay

acquires its bonding action only in

the presence of the required amount of
moisture.
When water is added to clay, it
penetrates the mixture and forms a
microfilm, which coats the surface of each
flake of the clay.
The amount of water used should be
properly controlled.
This is because a part of the water, which
coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps
in bonding, while the remainder helps in
improving the plasticity.

A Typical Composition of
Molding Sand:
Molding Sand Constituent

Weight Percent

Silica sand

92

Clay (Sodium Bentonite)

Water

Core Boxes
These are used for making cores. A core box is a wooden or
metallic type of pattern and are made either single or in two
parts. They may be classified according to the method of
making the core or shape of core. The common types of core
boxes are described below:
Half Core Box
Half core box is used when a symmetrical core is prepared in
two identical halves which are later on pasted or cemented
together to form a complete core.

Split core box

It is made in two parts like a split pattern. Both the parts
are joined together by means of dowel pins to form the
complete hollow cavity for making the core as shown in
Figure

Dump Core Box

For making the slab or rectangular shape of core, dump core
box is used. In construction, it is similar to half core box. The
box is made with side opening

Strickle Type Core Box

For the preparation of unsymmetrical or irregular shapes of
cores, strickle type of core-boxes are often used

Gang core box

Produce

many number of cores at

a time.
It has several holes or transverse
paths as shown in fig.. to form
several cores at a time.

CORE OVENS
Core

ovens are used for heating

the cores to obtain required
hardness.
There are different types of core
ovens..
Batch type ovens
Continuous type oven
Dielectric baking ovens

Core Making Methods

Cores

are made manually or with

machines. Cores are made by hand in
core box or by using sweeps.
Only core box methods are used for
making cores.
The various methods employed for
the manufacture of core will depend
on

Shape and size of core

Types of the binder used

The common methods of

core making are,

Hand core making methods

2. Hot core box method
3. Synthetic resin-based cold
curing method
4. Cold curing CO2 process
1.

Sand Testing
We

have already discussed the main properties

of a good moulding sand. Foundry sand plays
role as a chief constituents of moulding sand.
Therefore, the properties of moulding sand
depend upon the properties of foundry sand. To
control its composition and properties, it should
be tested periodically. The common types of
tests are as follows :
(a) Grain fineness test
(b) Moisture content test
(c) Clay content test
(d) Permeability test
(e) Strength test
(f) Mould and core hardness test

Grain Fineness Test

The

size of grain of a sand is designated by a

number called Grain fineness number which
points out the average size as well as proportion
of smaller and larger grains. Size of sand grain
provides a significant effect on its porosity or
permeability. Grains of similar sizes increase
porosity whereas those of different sizes reduce
the porosity but increase the compactness.
The foundry sand for its grain size is tested by
sieve shaker unit shown in Figure 2.13. It
consists of a set of standard sieves which are
graded and numbered according to the fineness
of their meshes or apertures. The coarsest sieve
is placed at the top and the finest one at the
bottom, rest of being placed below one another
in the same order.

By

applying the given formula,

fineness number may be
calculated
Fitness number= Total Products

Total Percentage
of sand

retained on
screen

Moisture Content Test

For

determining moisture content, a moisture

teller instrument is widely used. It consists of a
cast iron stand, an infra-red-heater bulb fitted
in the shade and a drying pan with a handle.
For test, take about 25 gms sand as a sample
in pan and then arrange this pan under the
shade. The bulb is switched on for about 2-3
minutes and then switched off. Remove pan
and weigh the sand again. The difference in
the weight of sample before and after drying
indicates the amount of moisture content. It is
expressed as a percentage of the total weight
of sand sample.

Clay Content Test

The

difference between original weight of a

dried sand sample and the final weight of a
dried sand sample after the mud has been
washed away gives the mud content of the
sand. It may be easily expressed as a
percentage of the original weight of the
sand sample.
The method for determining the clay
content of sand consists of stirring the sand
sample in distilled water at room
temperature so as to separate the clay
particles from the sand which remains
suspended in water. The material which
fails to settle within a period of 5 minute is
designated as a clay content.

Permeability Test
The

volume of air in cubic centimeter that will pass

per minute under a pressure of 1 gm per cm2
through a standard specimen of sand having 1 cm 2
in cross-sectional area and 1 cm deep is defined as
a permeability number.
The permeability number can be calculated by using
the following formula.
Permeability Number = Vh

pat
where, V = volume of air in cubic cm,
h = height of specimen in cm,
p = air pressure in gm/cm2,
a = cross sectional area of the specimen in cm 2, and
t = time in minutes taken by the air to pass.

Strength Test
The

foundry sand should be capable to

develop a maximum compressive strength
in moist condition. For strength test, a well
rammed sand specimen of 5.08 cm high
and 5.08 diameter is pushed out of the
specimen tube and then placed on the
upper plate of universal testing machine
with its end. A continuously increasing load
at a rate of about 200 kgf/cm2 is applied on
this specimen until rupture of the
specimen takes place. The compression
value may be read directly on the green
compression scale of the testing machine.

Mould and Core Hardness

Test
The

hardness of a mould and core can be

tested easily by means of a hardness
tester. The tester is about the size of a
pocket watch and the hardness test can
be performed within few seconds. It
carries a tip at its bottom which is
penetrated into the testing surface. A
spring loaded shaft inside the hollow
body of the instrument actuates the
needle of dial gauge fitted at the top. The
dial of this gauge indicates direct reading
of the hardness of testing surface.

2.3.4 Methods and Types

of Moulding Processes
The

different moulding processes may be

classified as follows :
According to the method used
(a) Floor Moulding
(b) Bench Moulding
(c) Pit Moulding
(d) Machine Moulding
According

to the mould materials

(a) Green Sand Moulding
(b) Dry Sand Moulding
(c) Loam Sand Moulding
(d) Core Sand Moulding

Floor Moulding
This

method of moulding is
commonly used for preparing the
mould of heavy and large size of
jobs which cannot be conveniently
moulded through bench moulding
method. In floor moulding, the floor
itself acts as a drag. It is preferred
for such rough type of castings
where the upper surface finish has
no importance.

Bench moulding
Bench

moulding is done on a
work bench of a height
convenient to the moulder. It is
best suited to prepare the mould
of small and light items which are
to be casted by non-ferrous
metals.

Pit Moulding
Large

size of jobs which cannot

be accommodated in moulding
boxes are frequently moulded in
pits. Here, the pit acts as a drag.
Generally, one box, i.e. cope is
sufficient to complete the mould.
Runner and riser, gates and
pouring basin are cut in it.
.

Machine Moulding
Machine

moulding method is
preferred for mass production of
identical casting as most of the
moulding operations such as
ramming of sand, rolling over the
mould, and gate cutting etc. are
performed by the moulding machine.
Therefore, this method of moulding is
more efficient and economical in
comparison to hand moulding

Green Sand Moulding

Green

sand consists of silica sand, 10

to 15 percent clay and 4 to 6 percent
moisture content. All these materials
are thoroughly mixed and riddled. It
should also be given the required
condition by proper tempering.
The main methods of green sand
moulding are as follows :
(a) Open sand method
(b) Bedded in method
(c) Turn over method

Dry Sand Moulding

This

process of moulding is just similar to

green sand moulding except the composition
of constituents in mixture. Here, in the
preparation of mixture for dry sand
moulding, special binding materials such as
resin, molasses, flour, or clay are mixed to
give strong bond to the sand. All parts of
mould are completely dried before casting.
Dry sand moulding is widely used for large
size of work such as parts of engine, large
size of fly wheel and rolls for rolling mill. This
process is costlier than green sand moulding
but much superior in quality.

Loam Sand Moulding

This

process is used for extremely large

size of casting which are to be made in
very small numbers. Loam sand moulds
are prepared with coarse grained silica
sand, clay, coke, horse manure and
water. This process of moulding is
performed in different way. First, a rough
structure of desired shape is made by
hand by using bricks and loam sand. This
structure is then finished by means of
strickle and sweep. The surfaces of
structure are blackened and dried before
being casted.

2.3.10 Metal Melting

Furnaces
A

large number of melting furnaces have been

developed and the choice of a particular type of
furnace depends upon the quantity of metal to be
melted at a time and the nature of metal to be
melted.
The main types of melting furnaces used in foundry
work are described below :
Crucible Furnace
It is the simplest type of furnace and widely used
at that place where the melting is not continuous
and different types of metal are to be melted in
small quantities. A crucible furnace comprises a
crucible which is made of clay and graphite. The
whole process of melting of metal takes place
inside the crucible. Generally, two types of crucible
furnaces are used in practice such as Pit-type and
Tilting type.

Pit Type Crucible Furnace

As

the name signifies, this type of furnace is

prepared in the form of a pit. These are used
for melting small quantities of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals. Usually, pit furnace is
fired with coke. They are provided with the
fire bricks lining inside and a chimney for
natural draught

Tilting Type Crucible

This type of furnace is mounted on two
Furnace

pedestals, raised above ground level and

rotated with the help of geared hand wheel.
Such types of furnaces are employed with
the provision of forced draught and usually
fired by coke, oil or gas.For oil and gas fired
furnaces, the crucible is supported with a
block of refractory material while for coal or
coke type, rests on the fuel bed.

Cupola

Cupola is used for melting and refining of pig iron along with
scrap. It is basically a hollow vertical shell or cylinder made
of mild steel and linked with fire bricks. The cylinder or shell
is mounted either on steel column or on a brick work
foundation. The bottom of the shell is provided with
dropbottom door. When the cupola is in operation, the
bottom door is supported by a prop. At the end of operation,
the charge feeding is stopped, air supply cut off and the
prop removed. As soon as the prop is removed, the bottom
door drops down providing a passage for the residue of
molten metal with slag to fall down. The amount of air
required is forced into the wind belt by blower which enters
the furnace, through tuyeres. Charging door is provided
above the charging platform. Through charging door, the
charge is fed into the furnace. The shell is continued above
the charging door to form a chimney. At the top of furnace a
conical construction called the spark arrester is attached to
prevent the spark from emerging to the outside

Zones in a Cupola

A number of combustion reactions take place in the cupola. Therefore, the entire shell
of cupola may be divided in zones which are as under :

Well Zone

The metal after melting is collected here and then tapped out. Well zone is the space
between top of sand bed and the bottom of tuyeres.

Combustion Zone
It is located about 15 cms to 30 cms above the top of tuyeres and also may be
called as oxidizing zone. As the actual combustion takes place in this zone, a lot of
heat is produced which is supplied from here to other zones. A temperature of about
1550oC to 1850oC is produced in this zone.

Reducing Zone
Reducing zone is located from the top of combustion zone to the top of the coke
bed. In this zone, the temperature falls to about 1200 oC at the coke bed on account
of reducing atmospheres. This zone protects the charge against oxidation.

Melting Zone
The 1st layer of metal charge above the coke bed and extend upto a height of about
90 cm. Being temperature around 1600 oC, the complete combustion of coke and
iron takes place in this zone.

Preheating Zone
It extends from above the melting zone to the bottom of charging door and contains
the cupola charge (alternate layers of coke, flux and metal). In this zone, the charge
is preheated at a temperature of about 1100 oC before coming to the melting zone.

Stack Zone

It is the empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone to the top of the cupola
which carries the gases generated within the furnace to the atmosphere.

Preparation and Charging

of Cupola

First of all the waste material and slag etc. are removed from
the cupola which are dumped under the furnace after the
previous melting. The bottom door is brought and secured in
position by means of prop, and then a sand bed is laid at the
bottom. The surface of the sand bed is sloped towards the
tapping hole so that the molten metal may be drained from
the cupola at any time.

As a bed charge, soft and dry wood is placed over the sand
bed followed by a bed of coke. The wood is ignited through
the tap hole. As soon as the coke bed is built up to the
correct height and ignited uniformly throughout, an alternate
layers of pig iron, coke and limestone are charged from the
charging door until the cupola is full to the charging door.
Usually, in practice, the charge ratio between metal and
coke is kept 8 : 1 to 10 : 1. Amount of limestone in charge
depends upon the amount of metal which is about 40 to 50
kg per metric ton of metal charge.

Applications
Cupola

is used to melt cast iron

Advantages
Initial

cost is comparatively lower

than other type of furnaces
It is simple in design
It requires less floor area

Induction Furnace

Shell Molding