BEC 306

OVERVIEW OF WATER AND

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESS

WATER
The various sources of water can be classified into two
categories:
1.Surface sources, such as
a. Ponds and lakes;
b. Streams and rivers;
c. Storage reservoirs; and
d. Oceans, generally not used for water supplies, at
present.
2.Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as
a. Springs;
b. Infiltration wells ; and
c. Wells and Tube-wells.

Water Quality
The raw or treated water is analyzed by testing
their Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological
characteristics:

Water Quality
Physical Solids, temperature, conductivity,

color, turbidity, odor.

Chemical pH, alkalinity, hardness, organic

compounds (including BOD, COD, TOC),

inorganic compounds (sulfate, phosphorus,
nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, Cl-, H2S, heavy
metals, etc.), dissolved oxygen etc.
Biological Bacteria, algae, protozoa, viruses,

coliforms, toxicity

What the content of water from this source???????

Water
wells

Physical Characteristics

Physical
Characteristics
for this water sources???

river

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Turbidity
If a large amount of suspended
solids are present in water, it will
appear turbid in appearance. The
turbidity depends upon fineness and
concentration of particles present
in water.

Originally turbidity was determined by measuring the

depth of column of liquid required to cause the image of
a candle flame at the bottom to diffuse into a uniform
glow. This was measured by Jackson candle turbidity
meter. The calibration was done based on suspensions
of silica from Fuller's earth. The depth of sample in the
tube was read against the part per million (ppm) silica
scale with one ppm of suspended silica called one
Jackson Turbidity unit (JTU). Because standards were
prepared from materials found in nature such as Fuller's
earth, consistency in standard formulation was difficult
to achieve.

Turbidity is measured by applying

Nephelometry, a technique to measure
level of light scattered by the particles at
right angles to the incident light beam.
The scattered light level is proportional to
the particle concentration in the sample.
The unit of expression is Nephelometric
Turbidity Unit (NTU). The IS values for
drinking water is 10 to 25 NTU.

Colour
Dissolved organic matter from decaying
vegetation or some inorganic materials may
impart colour to the water. It can be measured
by comparing the colour of water sample with
other standard glass tubes containing solutions
of different standard colour intensities. The
standard unit of colour is that which is produced
by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in
one litre of distilled water. The IS value for
treated water is 5 to 25 cobalt units.

Taste and Odour

Odour depends on the contact of a
stimulating substance with the appropriate
human receptor cell. Most organic and
some inorganic chemicals, originating from
municipal or industrial wastes, contribute
taste and odour to the water. Taste and
odour can be expressed in terms of odour
intensity or threshold values.

Temperature
The
increase
in
temperature
decreases palatability, because at
elevated temperatures carbon dioxide
and some other volatile gases are
expelled.

Temperature
Temp. of domestic WWT systems can vary

with seasons and can be directly related to

process operations.
Temperature :
1. Affects the reaction rate
2. Affects the solubility of gases

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Electrical Conductivity (EC) is the measure of the
ability of a solution to conduct an electrical
current.
EC is related to total dissolved solids (as it is

related to the concentration of ions in solution).

EC is used as a measure of salinity so it is an
important parameter for determining if water is
suitable for irrigation

Oxygen solubility (and with it Dissolved Oxygen

DO) decreases with increasing temperature

Chemical characteristics

pH
pH value denotes the acidic or alkaline
condition of water. It is expressed on a
scale ranging from 0 to 14, which is the
common logarithm of the reciprocal of the
hydrogen
ion
concentration.
The
recommended pH range for treated
drinking waters is 6.5 to 8.5.

pH is related to the hydrogen ion 4.1. pH

concentration, it is defined as:

pH = -log [H+] = log(1/[H+])
The pH of pure water is equal to 7.
Solutions with pH < 7 are acidic,
solutions with pH > 7 are basic.
pH is naturally influenced by CO2.
concentration as CO2 dissolves and forms
carbonic acid.

acidity

Acidity
The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to
neutralize bases. Acidity of water may be caused by
the presence of uncombined carbon dioxide, mineral
acids and salts of strong acids and weak bases. It is
expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate.
Acidity is nothing but representation of carbon
dioxide or carbonic acids. Carbon dioxide
causes

corrosion

supply systems.

in

public

water

Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to
neutralize acids. It is expressed as mg/L in terms of
calcium carbonate. The various forms of alkalinity
are (a) hydroxide alkalinity, (b) carbonate
alkalinity, (c) hydroxide plus carbonate
alkalinity, (d) carbonate plus bicarbonate
alkalinity, and (e) bicarbonate alkalinity, which
is useful mainly in water softening and boiler
feed water processes. Alkalinity is an important
parameter in evaluating the optimum coagulant
dosage.

ContAlkalinity
The alkalinity of water is a measure of its

capacity to neutralize acids (buffer capacity)

Bicarbonate (HCO3-) represents the major form
of alkalinity in natural water, because it is
formed upon the reaction of CO2 with calcium
(or magnesium) carbonate:
CO2 + CaCO3(s) + H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3
- The same reactions also explain the presence
of Ca+2 and Mg+2 in water, which are
responsible for the hardness of the water.

Hardness
If water consumes excessive soap to produce lather,
it is said to be hard.
Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations.
The principal hardness causing cations are
calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous and
manganese ions.
The major anions associated with these cations are
sulphates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and
nitrates.

The total hardness of water is defined as the sum of

calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed
as calcium carbonate, in mg/L. Hardness are of two
types, temporary or carbonate hardness and
permanent or non carbonate hardness.
Temporary hardness is one in which bicarbonate and
carbonate ion can be precipitated by prolonged boiling.
Non-carbonate ions cannot be precipitated or removed
by boiling, hence the term permanent hardness.

IS value for drinking water is 300 mg/L as

CaCO3.

Chlorides
Chloride ion may be present in combination with
one or more of the cations of calcium, magnesium,
iron and sodium. Chlorides of these minerals are
present in water because of their high solubility in
water. Each human being consumes about six to
eight grams of sodium chloride per day, a part of
which is discharged through urine and night soil.
Thus, excessive presence of chloride in water
indicates sewage pollution. IS value for drinking
water is 250 to 1000 mg/L.

Sulphates
Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from
sulphate mineral and oxidation of sulphides.
Sulphates are associated generally with calcium,
magnesium and sodium ions. Sulphate in
drinking water causes a laxative effect and leads
to scale formation in boilers. It also causes odour
and corrosion problems under aerobic conditions.
Sulphate should be less than 50 mg/L, for some
industries. Desirable limit for drinking water is
150 mg/L. May be extended upto 400 mg/L.

Iron
Iron is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric
oxide. When it comes in contact with water, it
dissolves to form ferrous bicarbonate under
favorable conditions. This ferrous bicarbonate is
oxidized into ferric hydroxide, which is a
precipitate. Under anaerobic conditions, ferric ion
is reduced to soluble ferrous ion. Iron can impart
bad taste to the water, causes discolouration in
clothes and incrustations in water mains. IS value
for drinking water is 0.3 to 1.0 mg/L.

Solids
The sum total of foreign matter present in water is
termed as 'total solids'. Total solids is the matter that
remains as residue after evaporation of the sample and
its subsequent drying at a defined temperature (103 to
105
C).
Total solids consist of volatile (organic) and non-volatile
(inorganic or fixed) solids. Further, solids are divided
into suspended and dissolved solids. Solids that can
settle by gravity are settleable solids. The others are
non-settleable solids. IS acceptable limit for total solids
is 500 mg/L and tolerable limit is 3000 mg/L of
dissolved limits.

Solid
A solid is a chemical or particle that is solid in a dry form at

normal condition of temperature and pressure.

In water, a solid is anything that would remain after the
water is being evaporated.
In water, a solid can be found dissolved or in suspension.
A distinction can then been made between the dissolved solid
fraction (TDS) that can pass through a 45m pore size filter
and the suspended solid (TSS) fraction that is retained

 Total solids content (TS): all the matter that remains

as residue upon evaporation at 103-105oC.

Settleable solids: settle to the bottom of a cone
shaped container
in 1hr (mL/L).
Total suspended solids (TSS): are in suspension in
the liquid phase i.e. they are removed from the
liquid by filtration (mg TSS/L).
Volatile suspended solids (VSS): are driven off at
temp of 550oC
(mg VSS/L).

Nitrates
Nitrates in surface waters occur by the
leaching of fertilizers from soil during
surface run-off and also nitrification of
organic
matter.
Presence
of
high
concentration of nitrates is an indication of
pollution. Concentration of nitrates above
45
mg/L
cause
a
disease
methemoglobinemia. IS value is 45 mg/L.

Nitrogen
Essential to the growth of algae and other biological

organisms excessive concentrations can cause

excessive growth
Interest in reducing N loads in effluents (typical
domestic N content 20-50 mg N/L)
N is usually found in organic compounds (proteins) and
inorganic compounds such as ammonia (NH4 + or NH3
depending on the pH), nitrite, and nitrate.
Nitrogen is a fertilizing agent. Elevated quantities of
inorganic N can cause algal blooms. Nitrogen is not
often limiting in fresh water but is often limiting in sea
water.

Phosphorus
Essential to the growth of algae and other biological organisms
excessive
concentrations can cause excessive growth
Interest in reducing P loads in effluents (typical domestic P content 5
- 15mg
P/L)
P is normally found as orthophosphate (PO4
3-, HPO4
2-, H2PO4
-, H3PO4) or
polyphosphate (polyP), which undergo hydrolysis to orthophosphate
Phosphorus is a fertilising agent. Elevatedquantities of inorganic P
can cause algal blooms because Phosphorus is often limiting in
freshwater

Heavy metals
One of the oldest known groups of
pollutants Definition hazy, some based on
density (> 6 g/cm3), others on atomic
weight and atomic number
However, some metals that dont fit these
definitions are often classed as heavy
metals e.g. aluminum, some heavy metals
arent even technically metals, e.g. arsenic,
antinomy.

 So, what are heavy metals?

Have strong ability to retain electrons
(compared with other metals) Thus,
form stable complexes or compounds
with other materials Are often toxic to
plants and animals in very low
concentrations
Include:
Arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, copper, lead,
mercury, nickel, selenium and zinc

Organic carbon
Compounds
made
of
carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, together with
nitrogen in some cases. About 75% of
SS in domestic wastewater are organic.

COD
COD is a measure of the oxygen
equivalent of the organic material
in wastewater that can be oxidized
chemically using dichromate in an
acid solution.

BOD
We measure the oxygen consumed
during
degradation
of
organic
compounds
by
bacteria
(bacteria
respire and consume organic food just
like us). The amount of oxygen is
correlated to the population size and
health (activity), which increases with
the amount of food = pollutant!

 BOD. "BOD" or "BOD5 @ 20oC" stands for Biochemical Oxygen

Demand and is one of the most commonly used measures of
the strength of the sewage. It is a measure of the amount of
oxygen which will be consumed by bacteria in oxidizing
(stabilizing) the sewage. BOD is determined by incubating the
sewage at 20oC for a period of five days and measuring the
dissolved oxygen content at the beginning and end of the period.

COD. "COD" stands for Chemical Oxygen Demand, and is a

commonly used measure of the sewage strength. It is a
measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize
the sewage. For a given sewage source, the COD value will almost
always be higher than the BOD value. One of the reasons for the
popularity of COD testing as a measure of sewage strength is that
a result can be obtained within a few hours, instead of the five
days required for BOD testing. Also, for a given sewage source,
the ratio of the COD to BOD, is relatively constant, so that the
BOD can be estimated from the COD results.

Fats Oils Grease (FOG)

FOG interfere with biological life and
they can create unsightly films.
FOG are of particular concern in
agricultural wastewaters (eg. dairy and
meat processing wastewaters).
The FOG content is determined by
extraction of a wastewater sample with
trichloro-trifluroethane, in which FOG are
soluble.

bacteriological characteristics

Bacterial examination of water is very

important, since it indicates the degree of
pollution. Water polluted by sewage
contain one or more species of disease
producing
pathogenic
bacteria.
Pathogenic organisms cause water
borne diseases, and many non
pathogenic bacteria such as E.Coli, a
member of coliform group, also live in
the intestinal tract of human beings.

Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more

resistance to adverse condition than any other group.
So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of
coliforms, the harmful species will be very less. So,
coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of
water with sewage and presence of pathogens.
The methods to estimate the bacterial quality
of water are:
Standard Plate Count Test
Most probable number
Membrane Filter Technique

Standard Plate Count Test

In this test, the bacteria are made to grow
as colonies, by inoculating a known volume
of sample into a solidifiable nutrient
medium (Nutrient Agar), which is poured in
a petri-dish. After incubating (35C) for a
specified period (24 hours), the colonies of
bacteria (as spots) are counted. The
bacterial density is expressed as number of
colonies per 100 ml of sample.

Most probable number

Most probable number is a number which represents the
bacterial density which is most likely to be present. E-Coli
is used as indicator of pollution. E.Coli ferment lactose with gas
formation with 48 hours incubation at 35C. Based on this E.Coli
density in a sample is estimated by multiple tube fermentation
procedure, which consists of identification of E-Coli in different
dilution combination. MPN value is calculated as follows:
Five 10 ml (five dilution combination) tubes of a sample is tested
for E-Coli. If out of five only one gives positive test for E-Coli and
all others negative. From the tables, MPN value for one positive
and four negative results is read which is 2.2 in present case.
The MPN value is expressed as 2.2 per 100 ml. These numbers
are given by Maccardy based on the laws of statistics.

Membrane Filter Technique

In this test a known volume of water sample is
filtered through a membrane with opening less than
0.5 microns. The bacteria present in the sample will
be retained upon the filter paper. The filter paper is
put in contact of a suitable nutrient medium and
kept in an incubator for 24 hours at 35C. The
bacteria will grow upon the nutrient medium and
visible colonies are counted. Each colony represents
one bacterium of the original sample. The bacterial
count is expressed as number of colonies per 100
ml of sample.

Sampling

Proper sampling and analytical techniques

are of fundamental importance in the
characterization of wastewater.
Four goals of sampling:
Representative
Reproducible
Defensible
Useful!

Sampling

Grab samples:
One sample from a sample point only
represents that point at that time.
Composite samples:
A collection of numerous individual
discrete samples taken at regular
intervals over a period of time, usually 24
hours

represents
the
average
performance/ composition/ flow during the
collection period.

The Typical Water Treatment Systems (In Malaysia)

Water intake point
(Using pumping
system)

Screening of water
(To remove leaves,
rubbish, etc)

Coagulation
(Removal of colloids)

Disinfection
(Chlorination)

Filtration
(To remove
suspended solids)

Sedimentation
(To remove settled
materials)

Water stabilization
(pH adjustment)

Fluoridation
(Water conditioning)

Storage
(For supplying
purposes)

Objectives :
To remove harmful microorganisms or chemicals, thereby preventing the
spread of disease in order to supply clean and safe water for public demand
Good water source :
Raw water with a coliform count of up to 5000/100mL and turbidity up to 10
units
Poor water source :
Raw water with coliform counts that frequently exceed 20,000/100 mL and
turbidities that exceed 250 units.

Water Treatment - Pollutant

Content must be removed from the water
source
Waste
Solid material / Colloidal particles
Pathogen
Heavy Metal
Exceed dissolved salt

Water Treatment Selection

FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO THE
SELECTION OF TREATMENT METHOD :
Sources of water intake
Characteristic of water
Cost

---

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR WATER INTAKE LOCATION :

Must have the best available water quality
Far from strong current adverse affect water intake
potential
Quantity of water demand can be achieved even at a
very low water flow rate
Near to water treatment plant
Easily accessible & possess adequate space and facilities
for maintenance works

SOURCES OF WATER INTAKE :

SURFACE WATER

: Particle Removal

GROUNDWATER

: Removal of dissolved inorganic

contaminants
WATER STORAGE
- High content of Fe & Mn
- Algal Bloom

Typical treatment plant for surface water :

1) Screening and grit removal
2) Primary sedimentation (settling/clarification)
3) Coagulation (Rapid mixing)
4) Flocculation
5) Secondary sedimentation
6) Filtration
7) Sludge processing
8) Disinfection

Ground-water drinking water treatment

Lime Soda
Ash

Aerator
Mixer

Flocculatio
n

Settling
Tank

CO2
Recarbonati
on

Groundwater Treatment
Typical treatment plant for groundwater :
1) Aeration
2) Flocculation/precipitation
3) Sedimentation
4) Recarbonation
5) Filtration
6) Disinfection
7) Solids processing

Water Treatment Process

Water Intake

Coagulation

Flocculation

Distribution

Pump House

Aeration

Screening

Pre-Sedimentation

Sedimentation

pHDisinfection
Adjustment

Filtration

-Water from rivers may be stored in bankside

reservoir for periods between a few days months to
allow natural biological purification.
-Provide buffer against short periods of drought or to
allow water supply to be maintained during transitory
pollution incidents in the source river.
-Blending water source.

Tower Water Intake

Gate controls

Water Surface

Open Port

Entry Port

Closed port

Outlet

Tower Water Intake

Traveling Water Screen

WASTEWATER

THE typical Wastewater Treatment

Systems (In Malaysia)
Wastewater intake
point
(Using pumping
system)

Sedimentation
(To remove settled
sludge)
Clarified
wastewater
Settled
solids

Screening of
wastewater
(To remove leaves,
rubbish, etc)
Biological treatment
(Using aeration tank)
(To remove suspended
solids)

Disinfection
(Chlorination)
(Optional)

Sludge treatment
Discharge point
(Effluent)

Grit removal
(To remove grits and
sands)

Oil and grease

removal
(Removal of grease)

Typical Domestic Water Use

Typical wastewater treatment plant

Chlorination
Bar
Scree
n

Grit
Chambe
r

Primary
Setting

Activated Sludge
Biological
Treatment

Final
Settling

Contact
Basin
Activated Sludge
recycle

Sludge
Thickenin
g
Sludge
Digestion

Typical wastewater treatment plant

Primary
settling

Preliminary
Treatment

Primary
Treatment

Secondary Treatment

Disinfection

Three major steps in WWT

(1) Primary treatment

physical process, separate large debris,
sedimentation.
(2) Secondary treatment
biological oxidation carried out by microbes.
(3) Tertiary treatment
physicochemical process, treat for pathogens,
remove non-biodegradable pollutants, excess
nutrients

wastewater treatment plant

Bar screens

Bar screens

wastewater treatment plant

Primary
Primary
Clarifiers
Clarifiers

Primary clarifiers

Primary clarifiers sludge scrapers

Primary clarifiers effluent wier

AST
Aeratio
n Tanks

Activated sludge aeration tank

Seconda
ry
Clarifiers

Secondary clarifiers

wastewater treatment plant

Chlorine
contact
chamber
s

Chlorine contract chambers

SCADA
WHAT IS THREAT TO WATER AND
WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITY??

 SCADA, an acronym for supervisory

control and data acquisition and
sometimes referred to as digital control
systems or process control systems,
plays an important role in computerbased control systems.
Many water/wastewater systems use
computer-based systems designed to
remotely control sensitive processes
and system equipment that used to be
controlled manually.

 These SCADA systems allow a

water/wastewater utility to collect data
from sensors and control equipment
located at remote sites. Common
water/wastewater system sensors
measure elements such as fluid level,
temperature, pressure, water purity,
water clarity, and pipeline flow rates.
Common water/wastewater system
equipment includes valves, pumps, and
mixers for mixing chemicals in the water
supply.

APPLICATION OF SCADA .
designed to monitor a variety of equipment operating
conditions and parameters, such as volumes, flow
rates, or water quality
to respond to changes in those parameters either by
alerting operators or by modifying system operation
through a feedback loop system without having
personnel physically visit each process or piece of
equipment on a daily basis to check whether or not it
is functioning properly.
to automate certain functions, so they can be
performed without having to be initiated by an
operator (e.g., injecting chlorine in response to
periodic low chlorine levels in a distribution system or
turning on a pump in response to low water levels in a
storage tank).

 integrate specific security alarms and

equipment, such as cameras, motion
sensors, lights, data from card-reading
systems, etc., thereby providing a clear
picture of what is happening at areas
throughout a facility.
provide constant, real-time data on
processes, equipment, location access,
etc., so the necessary response can be
made quickly.

SCADA VULNERABILITIES
SCADA networks were developed with little attention paid
to security, thus the security of these systems can often be
weak (USEPA, 2005).
HumansPeople can be tricked or corrupted and may
commit errors.
CommunicationsMessages can be fabricated,
intercepted, changed, deleted, or blocked. Hardware
Security features are not easily adapted to small selfcontained units with limited power supplies.
Physical threatsIntruders can break into a facility to steal
or damage SCADA equipment.
Natural threatsTornadoes, floods, earthquakes, and other
natural disasters can damage equipment and connections.
SoftwarePrograms can be poorly written.

THANK
YOU