Computed Tomography

Computed Tomography
Tomo: slice or section
Limitations of conventional radiography:
1. Depth information is lost
2. Anatomical details of different organs(3D)
superimposed on a single plane
3. Inability to produce sectional image
. Tomography techniques have been developed
which separates these superimposed
anatomical details and produce slice images
which convey depth information

Basic Principle
Mathematical principles of CT were
first developed in 1917 by Radon
Proved that an image of an
unknown object could be
produced if one had an infinite
number of projections through
the object

 Imaging reduces the 3D patient

anatomy to a 2D projection image
Density at a given point on an image
represents the x-ray attenuation
properties within the patient along a
line between the x-ray focal spot and
the point on the detector
corresponding to the point on the
image

 Limitation can be overcome, to some

degree, by acquiring two images at
an angle of 90 degrees to one
another
Example:
- Object made up from square blocks,
five of which have been removed to
form central cross

 X-ray projection that represent

attenuated radiation by the no. of
block in the row
Horizontal sums are shown on right
and vertical sums shown below
Then all horizontal and vertical sums
are added to produce numerical
reconstruction of a object as shown
10
9
7
9
10
below
9

10

10

 Then gray scale value assign to

numbers to produce image

Image can be manipulated to

highlight certain area i.e. contrast
can be adjusted
For ex 10-white, 9-black or 7-white,
6-black

Tomographic images

 The tomographic image is a picture of a

slab of the patients anatomy
The 2D CT image corresponds to a 3D
section of the patient
CT slice thickness is very thin (1 to 10
mm) and is approximately uniform
The 2D array of pixels in the CT image
corresponds to an equal number of 3D
voxels (volume elements) in the patient
Each pixel on the CT image displays the
average x-ray attenuation properties of
the tissue in the corresponding voxel

Tomographic acquisition
Single transmission measurement through
the patient made by a single detector at a
given moment in time is called a ray
A series of rays that pass through the
patient at the same orientation is called a
projection or view
Two projection geometries have been used
in CT imaging:
Parallel beam geometry with all rays in a
projection parallel to one another
Fan beam geometry, in which the rays at a
given projection angle diverge

Acquisition (cont.)
Purpose of CT scanner hardware is to
acquire a large number of transmission
measurements through the patient at
different positions
Single CT image may involve
approximately 800 rays taken at 1,000
different projection angles
Before the acquisition of the next slice, the
table that the patient lies on is moved
slightly in the cranial-caudal direction (the
z-axis of the scanner)

CT Generations
Scanning system:
- acquire enough information to reconstruct a
picture for an accurate diagnosis
- Based on scanning methods there are different
generations of CT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

First generation(Translate-Rotate)
Second generation(Translate-Rotate)
Third generation(Rotate-Rotate)
Fourth generation(Rotate-Fixed)
Fifth generation-EBCT
Sixth generation- Spiral CT
Seventh generation-MDCT

1st generation: rotate/translate,

pencil beam

1 generation (cont.)
st

Used pencil-like X-ray beam

It consist linear as well as rotary motion of X-ray tube
and detector
One x-ray detector used
Parallel ray geometry
Linear motion was repeated over 180 times
Between each of linear motion gantry rotate 1
degree
Acquire 180 projections
Axis of rotation pass through center of object
X-ray beam ON: linear motion and OFF: rotary motion

1 generation (cont.)
st

Translated linearly to acquire 160

rays
Total no. of rays or attenuation
measurements is 180 x 160 =
28,800
About 4.5 to 5 minutes/scan
For clinical study minimum 05 slices
required
Therefore total scan time = 5 x 5 =
25 minutes

1 generation (cont.)
st

Patient can stop head movements

during examination of head but not
possible to eliminate respiratory
movement
Therefore necessities that reduction
of scanning time to within breath
holding time
Objective of next generations

2nd generation: rotate/translate,

narrow fan beam

2 generation (cont.)
nd

Used narrow fan shape beam

30 detectors used
Linear as well as rotation motion
But 30 detectors gather more data per linear scan
So few linear movements are needed to gather
sufficient data
Instead of moving 1 degree after linear scan gantry
rotates up to 30 degree
Therefore total linear movements = 6 rather than
180 in first generation
10-90 sec time is required

3rd generation: rotate/rotate, wide

fan beam

3 generation (cont.)
rd

No translation motion
Only rotation motion( 0-360 deg)
Scan time is 4.9 sec
Fan shape beam used
Approximate 700 detectors used
Multiple detectors are align along the
arc of circle whose center is X-ray
tube focal spot

3 generation (cont.)
rd

Both X-ray tube and detector rotated along the

arc of circles whose center is approximately
coincide with center of patient
Fan beam must cover complete object to be
imaged
X-ray tube was pulsed. Each pulse produced
one projection
No. of scan lines in each projection is equal to
no. of detectors
Sometime X-ray tube is continuously on and
individual projections are obtained by reading
the output of detectors of rapid intervals

4th generation:
rotate/stationary

4 generation (cont.)
th

Detectors form a ring that completely

surrounds the patient.
Detectors are stationary
X-ray tube rotates in circle inside the detector
ring and X-ray beam is collimated to form a fan
beam
More than 2000 detectors used
Each projection taken at slightly different angle
Produced 1080 projections in one 360 deg
rotation

4 generation (cont.)
th

Less complex to read detectors 1000

times in 1 sec than to pulse X-ray
tube ON and OFF 1000 times in 1 sec
Disadvantage is scatter radiation
But minimized by using collimator for
each detector
1 sec time is required to produced
image

5th generation: stationary/stationary

5 generation (cont.)
th

3 and 4 generation scanners cannot

achieve scan time shorter than 1 sec
because of mechanical constraints
Rotation of X-ray tube takes time
Interest in faster scan time(less than
1 sec) for imaging of moving
structures, such as wall of the heart
or contrast material in blood vessels
and heart chambers

5 generation (cont.)
th

EBCT( Electron Beam Computed

Tomography)
Or CVCT( Cardiovascular Computed
Tomography)
Eliminate all motions of the X-ray tube
or detectors
Magnetic focusing and deflection of an
electronic beam replaced X-ray tube
motion

5 generation (cont.)
th

Three basic components

1. Electron gun , focusing and deflecting coils
2. Tungsten target ring (four, 180 cm
diameter)
3. Ring of detectors
. Electron gun has thermionic cathode produce
electrons
. It is 320 cm long, accelerates electrons at
130 Kev and focus beam onto one of four
tungsten target ring

5 generation (cont.)
th

Focusing coils are electromagnetic coils

use to focus electro beam on target ring
Then focused electron beam deflects on
large tungsten area by deflecting coils
(electrostatic)
Cause to produce X-rays in different
directions
and then they collimated into wide fan
beam
by a set of circular collimators

5 generation (cont.)
th

X-rays pass through the patient and

is detected by detectors ring consist
two rows of 432 detectors each
One scan can be obtained in 50 msec

CT system
Scanning system
Processing unit
Viewing part

Slip- Rings Technology

Problem of re-wounding of power cables
during scanning
Input power applied to the transformer
which is located separately from gantry
Then high voltage connected to metal
brushes
Metal brushes that make physical
contact with ring and transfer high
voltage to X-ray tube
Allows unlimited freedom of rotation

CT Detectors
Gas Filled or Xenon Detector
Scintillation Detector
Solid State Detector

Gas Filled Detector

Gas Filled detectors

 Use high-pressure (about 25 atm)

nonradioactive xenon gas, in long
thin cells between two metal plates
Long, thin plates are highly
directional
Must be positioned in a fixed
orientation with respect to the x-ray
source

Gas Filled detectors (cont.)

Radiation enters in thin cell cause
ionization of xenon gas molecules
Produce + ve and ve ions
+ve ions moves towards cathode and -ve
ions move towards anode when low voltage
applied across anode and cathode
Electrons collected by anode cause current
flows through it
Strength of current depends upon no. of
electrons, depends upon energy of
radiation
Efficiency is low (50 to 60 %)

Scintillation detector

Scintillation detectors
Composed of a scintillator (scintillating
crystal ) coupled tightly to a photo
detector (typically a photodiode)
Scintillator emits visible light when an
x-ray is absorbed, similar to an x-ray
intensifying screen
Photo detector converts light intensity
into an electrical signal proportional to
the light intensity

Scintillation detectors
(cont.)
Detector size typically 1.0 x 15 mm
(or 1.0 x 1.5 mm for multiple
detector arrays)
Scintillators used include cadmium
tungstate CdWO4 , Cesium Iodide CsI
and Bismuth germinate Bgo.
Better absorption efficiency than gas
detectors because of higher density

Scintillation detectors
(cont.)
To reduce crosstalk between adjacent
detector elements, a small gap between
detector elements is necessary, reducing
geometric efficiency somewhat
Top surface of detector is essentially flat
and therefore capable of x-ray detection
over a wide range of angles
Required for 4th generation scanners and
used in most 3rd generation scanners as
well

Solid-State Detector or
Semiconductor Detector

 Solid state detectors are modern semiconductor

instruments which use a reverse-bias p-n junction
diode.
When p type material is connected across ve and n
type material is connected across +ve then creating
much thicker depletion region.
Depletion region acts as a sensitive volume of the
detector
As a X-ray enter in depletion region, will create holes
and excess electrons.
The electrons are then attracted to then material,
while the holes move toward thepmaterial.
This creates a current pulse which can be measured
using a meter or counter.
Silicon or Germanium material used

Advantages
Superior energy resolution
100% efficiency
Compact size

CT number
After the calculation of value for the
attenuation coefficient of each pixel,
the value is converted into a new
number is called CT number
It allows computer to present
information as a picture with large
gray scale

CT number
CT number = K (P - w)/ w
K = Magnification constant
P = Attenuation coefficient of pixel
w = Attenuation coefficient of
water

CT number

Why?
1 = 0.35679
2 = 0.35698
3 = 0.35717
4 = 0.35736
5 = 0.35755

868
869
870
871
872

Notice that change in take place in the forth

decimal place and we get different CT
numbers for each

 What is CT number of bone whose

attenuation coefficient is 0.38 cm-1
and attenuation coefficient of water
is 0.195 (magnification constant =
1000)
Ans = 948

Radon Transform

Radon Transform

Radon Transform

Radon Transform

Radon Transform

Radon Transform