Language and Literacy Development

in Middle School Children

Theoretical Perspectives of Language

Development
Behaviorism
B.F. Skinners Operant Conditioning
Also called operant learning, the general idea of
learning is:
Rewarding a behaviour / reinforcement teaches the
subject that the behaviour is desired, and
encourages the subject to repeat it (increases
behaviour), and
Punishing a behaviour / punishment teaches the
subject that the behaviour is not desired, and
should not be repeated (decreases behaviour).

Theoretical Perspectives of Language

Development
Nativism
Noam Chomsky LAD language acquisition
device

Interactionism
Information Processing Use working memory
and attention to explain
Sociocultural Social interaction and culture
aid in language development
Functionalism Language development
provides practical benefits to children

Interactionist Theory
explains that language
developmentis both biological
and social. They argue that
language learning is influenced
by the strong desire of children
to communicate with others.
According to this theory,
children are born with a
powerful brain thatmatures
slowly and predisposes them to
acquire new

One of the modern theorists is

Jerome Bruner. He stresses that
parents and other caregivers have
critical role in the language
acquisition process. He also proposes
the use of Language Acquisition
Support System (LASS). This
refers to the importance of a childs
social support network, which works
in conjunction with innate
mechanisms to encourage or
suppress language development (by

Theoretical Perspectives of Language

Development

Another modern theorist is

Lev Vygotsky. He
proposes collaborative
learning. This learning
explains that conversations
with older peoplecan
helpchildren both

Antecedents of Language
Development
Here are the following devises that
make up the antecedents.
PSUEDODIALOGUES is one of the
early training devices characterized
by the give and take of the
conversation between the child and
the mother or other person. Adults
maintain the flow of conversation.

Antecedents of Language Development

PROTODECLARATIVES is
when the child uses
gestures to make a
description about the
statement.

Antecedents of Language
Development
PROTOIMPERATIVES is
when the child still uses
gestures but these gestures
are used to let someone do
for him. Make statements
about the things and
let
someone do it for him.

Developing Language
Infancy (Birth-12 months)
Interest

in human voice

Cooing
Babbling
Understanding some words
Preverbal gestures
Preference for sounds combinations and
syllable patterns of native language
Babbling reflects native language

Developing Language

Infancy (12 - 24 months)

Use

of single words
Holophrases
Vocabulary explosion
2-Word sentences
Telegraphic speech

Developing Language
Early Childhood (2-6)

Fast-mapping,

vocabulary growing from 200-

12,000 words

Undergeneralization
Overgeneralization

Overregularization
3-word sentences
More complex sentences
Difficulty pronouncing some phonemes
Increasing ability to construct narratives

Developing Language
Middle Childhood (6-10)
Vocabulary

increases 4x

Increasing understanding of language concepts

Sustained conversations about concrete

topics
Pragmatics more sophisticated
Focus on literacy
Linguistic creativity and word play
Pronunciation mastered

Developing Language
Adolescence
Increasing

awareness of the terminology

used in various academic disciplines
Ability to understand complex, multiclause
sentences
Emerging ability to carry on lengthy
conversations about abstract topics
Mastery of a wide variety of connectives
Ability to understand figurative language

EMERGENT AND EARLY LITERACY:

READING DEVELOPMENT AND
PERFORMANCE

EMERGENT / EARLY LITERACY

Emergent Literacy is the concept used to
explain childs reading and writing skills
before he can actually read and write.
It was first introduced by Marie Clay, a
New Zealand researcher in 1966.
Emergent literacy plays a vital role in
early education as it prepares the child
learning skills before formal introduction
in school (reading alphabets and counting
numbers using charts).

EMERGENT AND EARLY LITERACY:

READING DEVELOPMENT AND
PERFORMANCE

It was said in many researches

that the progress of childs
development can be
influenced by social
interactions with parents or
adults (e.g. playing and
talking), exposure to learning
materials (e.g. books,
crayons), and the use of
engaged learning materials

FOUNDATIONS OF EMERGENT
LITERACY
Letter Knowledge- understanding
each letter is unique; it has name
and sound, and recognizing
letters everywhere.
Vocabulary Developmentknowing the name of things
Narrative Skills- being able to
describe things, events, and tell
simple stories.

FOUNDATIONS OF EMERGENT
LITERACY
Print Motivation- being interested in and
enjoying books.
Print Awareness- noticing various forms of
prints, knowing how to handle a book, and
knowing to follow words across page.
Phonological Awareness- being able to hear
and play with the smaller sounds in words.

READING DEVELOPMENT and

PERFORMANCE
Emergent Readers

Children at this stage of

development have these
behaviors and knowledge:
Enjoy listening to books and
enjoy repeated readings of
favorite stories
Retell simple narratives

READING DEVELOPMENT and

PERFORMANCE
Emergent Readers

Begin to understand that it is the print that

carries the message
Attempt to read independently, sometimes
relying on their memories, the illustrations,
and their background experiences to reread
the story
Begin to understand directionality that is, the
left-to-right and top-to-bottom orientation of
print

READING DEVELOPMENT and

PERFORMANCE
Emergent Readers
Identify signs and labels in their
environment (environmental print)
Begin to understand that words are made
of sounds (phonemic awareness)
Identify some letters and know some
letter-sound matches (phonetic
awareness)
Begin to match spoken words and written
ones
Recognizes some words by sight (sight


Table 1: Challs Stages of Reading Development

Stage 1:
Initial
Reading and
Decoding

Source: Chall,
J. S., 1983.
Stages of
Reading
Development.
New York:
McGraw-Hill
Book
Company.

Age and Grade:

6-7 years old /
1st grade and
beginning 2nd

Characteristi
cs and
Masteries by
End of
Stage:
Child learns
relation
between
letters and
sounds and
between
printed and
spoken
words; child
is able to
read simple
text
containing
high
frequency
words and

How are these

Acquired?
Direct
instruction in
advanced
decoding
skills; wide
reading
(instruction
and
independent
levels) of
familiar,
interesting
materials that
help promote
fluent
Reading.
Being read to
at levels
above their


Table 1: Challs Stages of Reading Development

Stage 2:
Confirmation
and Fluency

Source: Chall,
J. S., 1983.
Stages of
Reading
Development.
New York:
McGraw-Hill
Book
Company.

Age and
Characteristic
Grade:
s and
7-8 years old / Masteries by
2nd and 3rd
End of Stage:
grade
Child reads
simple,
familiar
stories and
selections
with
increasing
fluency. This
is done by
consolidating
the basic
decoding
elements
context in the
reading of
familiar

How are these

Acquired?
Direct
instruction in
letter-sound
relations
(phonics) and
practice in
their use.
Reading of
simple stories
using words
with phonic
elements
taught and
words of high
frequency.
Being read to
on a level
above what a
child can read


Table 1: Challs Stages of Reading Development

Stage 3:
Reading for
Learning the
New

Phase A

Phase B

Source: Chall,
J. S., 1983.
Stages of
Reading
Development.
New York:
McGraw-Hill
Book
Company.

Age and Grade:

9-13 years old /
4th 8th grade

Intermediate 4th
6th

Junior High
School 7th 9th

Characteristics
and Masteries
by End of
Stage:
Reading is used
to learn new
ideas, to gain
new knowledge,
to experience
new feelings, to
learn new
attitudes,
generally from
one viewpoint.

How are these

Acquired?
Reading and
study of
textbooks,
reference
works, trade
books,
newspapers,
and magazines
that contain
new ideas and
values,
unfamiliar
vocabulary and
syntax;
systematic
study of words
and reacting to
the text
through
discussion,
answering
questions,


Table 1: Challs Stages of Reading Development

Stage 4:
Multiple
Viewpoints

Source: Chall,
J. S., 1983.
Stages of
Reading
Development.
New York:
McGraw-Hill
Book Company.

15-17 years old Reading widely

/ 10th 12th
from a broad
grade
range of
complex
materials, both
expository and
narrative, with
a variety of
viewpoints.

Wide reading
and study of
the physical,
biological and
social science
and the
humanities,
high quality
and popular
literature,
newspaper,
and
magazines;
systematic
study words
and word
parts.


Table 1: Challs Stages of Reading Development

Stage 5:
Construction
and
Reconstruction

Source: Chall,
J. S., 1983.
Stages of
Reading
Development.
New York:
McGraw-Hill
Book Company.

18+ years old /

College and
beyond

Reading is
used for ones
own needs and
purposes
(professional
and personal);
reading serves
integrate ones
knowledge
with that of
the others, to
synthesize it
and to create
new
knowledge. It
is rapid and
efficient.

How are these

Acquired?

Wide reading
of ever more
difficult
materials,
reading
beyond ones
immediate
needs; writing
papers, tests,
essays, and
other forms
that call for
integration of
varied
knowledge and
points of voice.

FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

1. Early Language Stimulation

Parent and caregiver can help the development of child's
communication through natural and everyday activities. These
activities are playing and talking to the child.
In fact, most of the messages we convey are done through nonverbal means such as body gestures, facial expressions, body
language, eye-contact and touch.
Early Language Stimulation Activities:
Playing with sounds or take turns making sounds with your
infant or toddler.
Make the same sound your infant or toddler or a sound that is
like your infant or toddlers sound.
Make sounds of familiar animals and objects.
Talk about food or things in the environment to stimulate the
childs senses
Read books or any reading material together with your child.
Playing helps to develop the overall development of the child.

Factors affecting Early Language Stimulation:

Inadequate stimulation receives by the child
like parents are seldom talking to their child,
or lack of opportunity for the parents to play
with their child.
Insufficient learning materials that will help
enhance childs reading and writing ability.
Childs exposure to too many languages (both
parents can talk using two different
languages).
Factors like anxiety, pressure and behavioural
problems.

2. Literate Communities and Environment

The literacy-rich environment emphasizes the importance of speaking,

reading, and writing in learning development. This involves the
selection of materials that will facilitate language and literacy
opportunities; reflection and thought regarding classroom design, and
intentional instruction and facilitation by teachers and staff.

The Purpose of Literacy-Rich Environments

Allow learners with disabilities explore the elements of literacy.
The literacy-rich environment emphasizes the importance of speaking,
reading, and writing in the learning of all students.
It able to create both independent and direct activities to enhance
understanding of concept of print and word, linguistic and phonemic
awareness, and vocabulary development.

Factors affecting Literacy-Rich Communities or

Environment:
Lack of written materials like books, newspapers,
and magazines.
No access to information and communication
technology like phones and computers.
No access to broadcast media like TVs and radios.
Poor quality teaching and curriculum provided in
school.
Lacks of social interaction and communication.
Language development can also be affected by
socio-economic condition of the family.

Story Reading
Story reading plays a vital role childs literacy and
language development. The books he reads, and
the characters he gets to know can become like
their companion. It is good for children to
understand that books are a useful source of
knowledge. Reading also builds childs selfconfidence, helps to cope with his feelings and
stimulate the development of language and
learning.

Gines, A. C. et al., 1998. Developmental Psychology: A Textbook

for College Students in Pschology and Teacher Education. Manila:
Rex Bookstore, Inc..
Owens, K. B., 2006. Child and Adolescent Development: An
Integrated Approach. Singapore: Thomson - Wadsworth.
University, S. I., n.d. Literacy Development. [Online]
Available at:
http://www.siue.edu/education/readready/1_Literacy/1_SubPages/
1_ld_emergent.htm
[Accessed 14 August 2013].