Theories of Motivation

Paper II
Module III
Unit 6
Presented by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Giselle

N
o
1.
2.

3.

School of
Theory
Psycholog
y
Cognitive Attribution theory
Behaviouri -Drive reduction
stic
theory
-Operant
conditioning
Humanisti a. Theory of the
c
Self
b. Hierarchy of
Needs Theory
c. Theory X
Theory Y

Psychologist

B.Weiner
-C.L.Hull
-B.F. Skinner

-Carl Rogers
-Abraham
Maslow
-Mc. Gregor

Cognitive

Internal mental processes

of thought
Behaviouris Behaviour
tic
Humanistic Self

Motivation
Motivation defined:
Internal state
Arouses, directs,
maintains behavior

Intrinsic / Extrinsic
Locus of causality

3 General Approaches to
Motivation
Behavioral Rewards are consequences of
behaviors
Approach

Incentives encourage or
discourage behaviors
Emphasis on personal
Humanistic
choice
Approach Needs
Self-actualization / Selfdetermination
Focus
on thinking
Maslows
hierarchy

Cognitive
Approach

Emphasizes intrinsic
motivation
People are active and curious

Attribution Theory

Bernard Weiner

Weiners Terms
Locus
Stability

Internal / external

Responsibilit

Stable / unstable

Controllable /
uncontrollable

ATTRIBUTION (REASONS) THEORY

Attribution theory is concerned with the
reasons (attributions) performers give to
their success or failure
Weiner suggested that high achievers and low
achievers attribute success and failure to
different reasons

T
Weiners 4 Attributions:
A
L
Ability(Internal and stable)
E
Effort( Internal and unstable)
Luck (External and unstable)
Task Difficulty(External and stable)

 The 4 attributions can be placed along

2 dimensions
Locus of Causality
Locus of Stability

Locus of Causality:
Whether the performance outcome could be
caused by factors under the control of the
performer (internal factors of effort and ability)
OR
Caused by factors beyond the control of the
performer (external factors of task difficulty and

The Locus of Stability

Stability:
Whether the performance outcome is fixed and
unchanging OR can vary over time.
Ability and Task difficulty are STABLE and
FIXED during the period of performance.
Effort and luck may change (UNSTABLE) from
performance to performance OR within a
performance

High Achievers: attribute success to INTERNAL

factors
failure to EXTERNAL factors

Low Achievers: attribute success to EXTERNAL

SELF SERVING BIAS

The tendency of performers to attribute
success to themselves
Therefore these will be INTERNAL reasons.
ALSO:
Reasons for failure might be attributed to
external/changeable reasons
E.G:
It was the referees fault we lost
This demonstrates a tendency to protect
ones self esteem

Learned Helplessness
Redefine success where ability is the reason for
failure
Acknowledge the need to change
attributions (attribution retraining) to those
appropriate to high achievers
If the performer is a low achiever, learn how to
attribute success and failure to the same
reasons given by high achievers
Be aware that low achievers often suffer from
Learned Helplessness
L.H is the problem caused by continually

 Performers with LH think that:

- Failure is inevitable
- What they do makes little difference to the outcome
- Success might be due to luck and not repeatable

LH can be global or specific

LH can be based on:
- Lack of success
- Low confidence
- A bad experience

In order to control LH, a change in the

attribution process must take place this is
known as Attribution retraining
Mastery Orientation is the opposite to LH. An
athlete has confidence, they feel in control, have a
history of success.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY AND ACHIEVEMENT

MOTIVATION
A coach should try to make the performer:
Attribute success to internal factors in order to
maximize confidence and satisfaction
Attribute success to stable factors in order to
maximize the expectation of future success
Attribute failure to external factors in order to
minimize negative feelings
Attribute failure to unstable factors in order to
minimize the expectations of future losses. Be careful
when attributing failure to lack of effort if the performer
has tried their hardest.

Why Goals Improve

Performance
Direct attention to the task at hand
Mobilize effort
Increase persistence
Promote development of new
strategies

Four Kinds of Goals

Learning goals :(Increase competence)
Performance goals:(Earn favourable
judgments)

Work-avoidance goals (To get away from

work)

Social goals (To gain friends)

Effective Goals Are

Specific
Challenging
Attainable
Focused on the task
Supported by social relationships
Reinforced with feedback
Accepted by the student

Other important
concepts
Self-handicapping

(Resorting to use of alcohol

and drugs and blaming poor performance on that)

Expectancy valence theory

( Persons
motivation to achieve a goal depends on the
value/valence of that goal and the learners estimation
of the likelihood of success).a high expectation of
success actually lowers motivation due to over
confidence.

Self-worth theory

(Individuals are largely

motivated to do what enhances their reputation)

Drive
Reduction
Theory
( C. Hull )

Behaviouristic
Approach

Drive-Reduction Theory
The idea that a physiological need creates
an aroused tension state (a drive) that
motivates an organism to satisfy the need
Eating and drinking are examples of drivereducing behaviors.
If you are cold, you would be driven or pushed
to put on a coat to warm-up. If you shiver,
that would be an instinctual behavior.
Criticism: Cant explain why people often
engage in behaviors that serve to increase
tension and physiological arousal.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Drive Reduction Theory ( Behaviorism )

Introduction

This theory states that organism , especially humans ,

learn to perform
Behavior that have the effect of reducing their
biological drives .
Hulls drive reduction theory is based upon his
mathematical formulation
Known as: Hulls law
The Excitation Potential Formula reads as
follows :
E = S x H x R [ D x K x J x V] where
E = Excitation Potential
D = The amount of biological deprivation or Drive

According to theory this case described by Miller & Dollard

(1941): A six year old girl who is hungry and wants candy is
(cont.)
told that there is candy hidden underIntroduction
one of the books
in a
bookcase. The girl begins to pull out books in a random
manner until she finally finds the correct book (210
seconds). She sent out of the room and a new piece of
candy is hidden under the same book. In her next search,
she is much more directed and finds the candy in 86
seconds. By the ninth repetition of this experiment, the girl
finds the candy immediately (2 seconds). The girl present a
drive for the candy and looking under books represented
her responses to reduce this drive. When she eventually
found the correct book, this particular response was
rewarded, forming a habit. On subsequent trials, the
strength of this habit was increased until it became a single
stimulus-response connection in this setting.

HULLS THEORY IN

EDUCATION

Overview (Cont)
Drive : the learner must want something
Cue : the learner must attend to something
Response : the learner must do something
Reinforcement : the learners response

Must get him/her something that he orDrive

she wants
Cues

Reinforcement

Response

Principles:
Overview (Cont)

1. Drive is essential in order for responses to

occur (i.e., the student must want to learn).
2. Stimuli and responses must be detected by
the organism in order for conditioning to occur (
i.e., the student must
be attentive).
3. Response must be made in order for
conditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be
active).
4. Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement

Conclusio
To Summarize the Drive Stimulus

Reduction Theory according to Clark

Organisms
Hull
:

suffer deprivation
1

Deprivation
2 creates needs

Achieving the goal

6
has survival value

5
Behavior
is goal directed

Needs
activate drives

Drives activate behavior

Common Themes of the Humanists

For the humanists, the unit of analysis
is perceived reality
In contrast to Freudian determinism,
humanists emphasize personal
responsibility and choice
The humanists view that persons are
inherently good with unique
attributes for greatness has led to a
movement called positive psychology
27

Humanistic Theories

Motivation is affected by:

1. How we perceive the world,
2. How we think about ourselves
3. The degree to which the environment is
supportive and encouraging

Abraham Maslow suggested that

motives
are divided into several levels from
basic survival needs to psychological
and self-fulfillment needs

Hierarchy of Needs
Maslows pyramid of human
needs begins at the base with
physiological needs, and then
proceeds through safety
needs to psychological needs.
Higher-level needs wont
become active until lowerlevel needs have been

Self-Actualization
According to Maslow, the
need to live up to ones fullest
and unique potential
Maslows notion that we must
satisfy needs at one level
before moving to the next
level has not been supported
by research.

Carl Rogers
The Humanistic
Approach

Basic Premise
Humans are motivated through an
innate potential to actualize,
maintain and enhance the self
Sees people as basically good

Experiential World
Phenomenology
The reality of our environment depends
on our perception of it
Subjective perception of reality

Emergence of Self-Concept
Self-concept: How I see myself
As infants grow, they develop the
need for positive regard
Positive regard: Acceptance, love and
approval from others
Child does not receive positive
regard: fails to develop actualizing
tendency fully

Unconditional Positive
Regard
Approval granted regardless of
behavior
Conditions of worth
Conditional positive regard
Positive self-regard
Eventually grant positive regard to
ourselves

Incongruence
Discrepancy between selfconcept and aspects of
experience
Experiences inconsistent with
how we see ourselves cause
anxiety
Psychological
adjustment/emotional health

Characteristics of Fully Functioning

Persons (Self-Actualizing)

Awareness of all experiences

Live fully in the moment
Trust own behavior and experience
Sense of freedom in decision making
Creative, flexible to change
Recognition difficulties will inevitably
arise

Personality
No aspect is predetermined
Actualizing tendency: Innate, but
more influenced by social factors
than biological
Accounts for childhood, but later
experiences are more important
Optimistic, positive view of change
as
possible at any point over the
lifespan

Person-Centered Therapy
Represents a shift from medical
model to growth model
Strong emphasis on the therapeutic
relationship

3 Conditions in Person-Centered
Therapy
Conditions are necessary and
sufficient for change
Empathy
Congruence/Genuineness
Unconditional Positive Regard

Carl Rogers: Person-Centered

Approach
Rogers believed that humans are
basically good.
He argued that we have an innate
drive to reach an optimal sense
of ourselves & satisfaction with our
lives.
He felt that the process by which we
do this, not the end result is what
matters.
A person who does this is what he
calls a Fully Functioning

Characteristics of a Fully Functioning

Person
1. These people are open to their
experiences. They strive to experience
life to its fullest & are willing to take
some risks.
2. These people live in the present (here
& now).
3. These folks trust their own feelings
& instincts. They arent held back by old
standards or concern for what others
might think.
4. These folks are less concerned with

Conditions of Worth & Unconditional

Positive Regard
Rogers argues that most of us grow
up in an atmosphere where we are
given love & support as long as
we behave the way we are
expected to.
This is what he calls Conditional
positive regard. The emphasis is
that love is given conditionally (with
a string attached).

If we dont do what our parents want us to

do?
Rogers argued that in these cases,
parents withhold their love from us.
As a result of this, children learn to
abandon their true feelings, wishes,
& desires, for those of their parents.
This paves the way for us to
become alienated from our true
selves.

Unconditional positive regard

We need this to accept all parts of our
personality.
With this we know we are loved & valued
for being who we are.
Parents can do this, by making it clear
that their love is not contingent on the
childs behavior (even when such
behavior is abhored).

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McGregors Assumptions
About People Based on Theory X
Naturally indolent(lazy)
Lack ambition, dislike
responsibility, and prefer to be
led
Inherently self-centered and
indifferent to organizational
needs
Naturally resistant to change
Gullible(easy to fool), not bright,
ready dupes

McGregors Assumptions
About People Based on Theory Y
Experiences in organizations result in
passive and resistant behaviors; they are not
inherent (inbuilt/natural)
Motivation, development potential, capacity
for assuming responsibility, readiness to
direct behavior toward organizational goals
are present in people
Managements taskarrange conditions and
operational methods so people can achieve
their own goals by directing efforts to
organizational goals

Douglas McGregors X & Y

Inherent dislike for

work and will attempt
to avoid it
Must be coerced,
controlled or
threatened with
punishment
5-50

View work as being as

natural as rest or play
Will exercise selfdirection and selfcontrol if committed to
objectives

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