Enterprise Systems

Distributed databases and

systems DT211 4
1

Concepts

Distributed Database
A logically interrelated collection of shared
data (and a description of this data),
physically distributed over a computer
network.

Distributed DBMS
Software system that permits the
management of the distributed database
and makes the distribution transparent to
2
users.

Concepts

Collection of logically-related shared

data.
Data split into fragments.
Fragments may be replicated.
Fragments/replicas allocated to sites.
Sites linked by a communications
network.
Each DBMS participates in at least one
global application.
3

Advantages of DDBMSs

Reflects organizational structure

Improved
shareability
and
local
autonomy
Improved availability
Improved reliability
Improved performance

Disadvantages of DDBMSs

Complexity
Cost
Security
Integrity control more difficult
Database design more complex

Types of DDBMS
Homogeneous DDBMS
Heterogeneous DDBMS
Sites may run different DBMS products, with
possibly different underlying data models.
Occurs when sites have implemented their own
databases and integration is considered later: ad
hoc planning. Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
is the new approach that attempts to overcome
this problem

Functions of a DDBMS

DDBMS to have at
functionality of a DBMS.
Also
must
have
functionality:

least

the

following

Distributed query processing.

Extended concurrency control.
Extended recovery services.

Distributed Database Design

Three key issues:
Fragmentation
Relation may be divided into a number of subrelations, which are then distributed.
Allocation
Each fragment is stored at site with "optimal"
distribution (see principles of distribution design).
Replication
Copy of fragment may be maintained at several
sites.
8

Fragmentation
Quantitative information (replication) used for may
include:
frequency with which an application is run;
site from which an application is run;
performance criteria for transactions and
applications.
Qualitative information (fragmentation) may
include transactions that are executed by
application: relations, attributes and tuples.

Comparison
Distribution

of

Strategies

for

10

Data

Correctness of Fragmentation
Three correctness rules:
Completeness
If relation R is decomposed into fragments R1, R2, ... Rn,
each data item that can be found in R must appear in at least
one fragment.
Reconstruction
Must be possible to define a relational operation that will
reconstruct R from the fragments.
Reconstruction for horizontal fragmentation is Union operation
and Join for vertical .
Disjointness
If data item di appears in fragment Ri, then it should not appear
in any other fragment.; Exception: vertical fragmentation, where
primary key attributes must be repeated to allow
reconstruction.
For horizontal fragmentation, data item is a tuple (row)
11
For vertical fragmentation, data item is an attribute.

Horizontal Fragmentation
Consists of a subset of the tuples of a relation.
Defined using Selection operation of relational algebra:
p(R)
For example:
P1 =

type='House'

P2 =

type='Flat'

(PropertyForRent)

(PropertyForRent)

Result (PNo., St, City,

postcode,type,room,rent,ownerno.,staffno., branchno.)
This strategy is determined by looking at predicates used by
12
transactions.

Vertical Fragmentation
Consists of a subset of attributes of a relation.
Defined using Projection operation of relational algebra:
a1, ... ,an(R)
For example:
S1 = staffNo, position, sex, DOB, salary(Staff)
S2 = staffNo, fName, lName, branchNo(Staff)
Determined by establishing affinity of one attribute to another.
For vertical fragements reconstruction involves the join operation;
Each fragment is disjointed except for the primary key
13

Mixed Fragmentation

Consists of a horizontal fragment that

is vertically fragmented, or a vertical
fragment
that
is
horizontally
fragmented.
Defined using Selection and Projection
operations of relational algebra:
p( a1, ... ,an(R))
a1, ... ,an(p(R))

or
14

Transparencies in a DDBMS
Distribution Transparency
Fragmentation Transparency
Location Transparency
Replication Transparency
Transaction Transparency
Concurrency Transparency
Failure Transparency

15

Concurrency Transparency
All transactions must execute independently and
be logically consistent with results obtained if
transactions executed one at a time, in some
arbitrary serial order.
Same fundamental principles as for centralized
DBMS.
Replication makes concurrency more complex.
If a copy of a replicated data item is updated, update must
be propagated to all copies.
However, if one site holding copy is not reachable, then
transaction is delayed until site is reachable.

16

Failure Transparency
DDBMS must ensure atomicity and durability of
global transaction.
Means ensuring that sub-transactions of global
transaction either all commit or all abort.
Thus, DDBMS must synchronize global transaction
to ensure that all sub-transactions have completed
successfully before recording a final COMMIT for
global transaction.
Must do this in the presence of site and network
failures.

17

Performance Transparency

Must
consider
fragmentation,
replication, and allocation schemas.
DQP has to decide e.g. :
which fragment to access;
which copy of a fragment to use;
which location to use.

18

Performance Transparency

DQP produces execution strategy

optimized with respect to some cost
function.
Typically, costs associated with a
distributed request include:
I/O cost;
Communication cost: WAN.
19

Performance Transparency - Example

Property(propNo, city) 10000 records in London
Client(clientNo,maxPrice) 100000 records in Glasgow
Viewing(propNo, clientNo) 1000000 records in London
SELECT p.propNo
FROM Property p INNER JOIN
Client c INNER JOIN Viewing v ON c.clientNo =
v.clientNo) ON p.propNo = v.propNo
WHERE p.city=Aberdeen AND c.maxPrice > 200000;
This query selects properties that viewed in aberdeen that have a
price greater than 200, 000.

20

Performance Transparency - Example

Assume:
Each tuple in each relation is 100 characters long.
10 renters with maximum price greater than
200,000.
100 000 viewings for properties in Aberdeen.
In addition the data transmission rate is 10,000
characters per sec and there is a 1 sec access delay to
send a message.

21

Performance Transparency - Example

Derive the following :

22

Parallel Data Management

The argument goes:
if your main problem is that your queries run too slowly, use more
than one machine at a time to make them run faster (Parallel
Processing).
SMP All the processors share the same memory and the O.S. runs and
schedules tasks on more than one processor without distinction.
in other words, all processors are treated equally in an effort to get
the list of jobs done.
However, SMP can suffer from bottleneck problems when all the
CPUs attempt to access the same memory at once.
MPP - more varied in its design, but essentially consists of multiple
processors, each running their own program on their own memory i.e.
memory is not shared between processors.
the problem with MPP is to harness all these processors to solve a
single problem.
But they do not suffer from bottleneck problems
23

 There are two possible solutions dividing up the data: Static and
Dynamic Partitioning.
In Static Partitioning you break up the data into a number of sections.
Each section is placed on a different processor with its own data storage
and memory. The query is then run on each of the processors, and the
results combined at the end to give the entire picture. This is like joining a
queue in a supermarket. You stay with it until you reach the check-out.
The main problem with Static Partitioning is that you cant tell how much
processing the various sections need. If most of the relevant data is
processed by one processor you could end up waiting almost as long as if
you didnt use parallel processing at all.
In Dynamic Partitioning the data is stored in one place, and the data
server takes care of splitting the query into multiple tasks, which are
allocated to processors as they become available. This is like the single
queue in a bank. As a counter position becomes free the person at the
head of the queue takes that position
With Dynamic Partitioning the performance improvement can be dramatic,
but the partitioning is out of the users hands.

24

Sample type question

Fragmentation, replication and allocation
are the three important characteristics
discuss their importance in relation to
distributed databases.

25