OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Basic terms in study of open channel flow are:

discharge or cross-sectional area A , wetted
perimeter O, hydraulic radius Rh = A/O and
volume discharge Q.
A
hB
h
Rh

For the rectangular cross-section:

(for real river h/B0 ; Rh = h).

2h B

1 2h / B

Irrigation channels are often built with trapezoidal

cross-section. Sewage channels are mostly made

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Partially regulated channels often occur as
Man-made regulation
composite channels.
(inundation + dike)

Nature main river bad

Natural river beds are nonuniform.

The depth is defined as vertical distance between
the free surface and the lowest
point on the line of
cross section.
If the bed is made of resistant material the profile
will remain stable and unchanged over time.
Otherwise, erosion and deposition will lead to a

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Classification for open channel flow: uniform and
nonuniform

Classification for open channel flow: steady unsteady

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

laminar and turbulent
V4R h
Critical Reynolds number for
Reh =

open channel
flow

D = 4Rh Rekrit 500

subcritical, critical and supercritical

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW resistance and turbul

For the practical purposes one can adopt the
logarithmic velocity profile along the vertical:
u*
u
y
=1+2,5 1+ln
V
V
h

It is a non-dimensional equation that relates velocity u

in particular point of vertical axes, mean velocity V
and shear velocity u*.

The channel bed with higher roughness induces more

intense turbulence. That will cause a decrease in nearbottom velocities, as well as an increase in free
surface velocity.

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW resistance and turbul

The distribution of shear stresses along the contour of
trapezoidal cross-section is given in the figure:

The consequence of non-uniform stress distribution is

the onset of weak secondary flow in cross section
and shift of maximum velocity position from the
surface to the deeper layer.

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW uniform flow

The first task in engineering practice is to
calculate the cross-section average velocity V and
volume discharge Q for an arbitrary cross-section
A. In the case of uniform flow Chezy equation is
commonly used:
V =C RhI0
C - Chezy roughness coefficient
I0 slope of channel bottom

For the uniform flow condition: I0 = IPL= IEL

IPL slope of piezometric line (slope of free surface)
IEL slope of energy line IEL

16
C = Rh coefficient in practice
To define Chezys roughness
n

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW uniform flow

For uniform and stationary flow conditions Chezy

equation would define the relation Q(h) = V(h)*A(h) or
so-called consumption curve.

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW local changes in cross-sectio

The occurrence of sudden changes in channel

geometry causes gradually changes in the flow
geometry. The disturbances of free surface are
present upstream and downstream from the
position of change.
Intensified vorticity in the vicinity of geometry
V2
disturbance
is responsible for the local losses of
hV =
mechanical
energy:
2g
V average velocity in flow cross-section

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW cross-section specific energy

The flow through an arbitrary cross-section can be

also divided according to the gravity participation in
the overall inertia force.
The appropriate regimes are termed as: subcritical,
critical or supercritical. We need to introduce the idea of
specific energy E of cross-section that is defined by
equation: 2
Q
E =h+
2gA2

2
dAto2 yield the extrema of Q
IndEQ
order
specific
energy
=1- 3
B=1
function
dh
gAE we
dh apply the first derivate:
gA3

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW cross-section specific energy

Fr < 1 subcritical
Fr > 1 supercritical
Fr = 1 critical
The depth at which Fr = 1 one terms as critical depth
hkr and associated cross-section2 average velocity
as
2
q
q
3
2
critical
velocity
v
.
E =h+
h - Eh + =0
V qkr/ h
q =Q/B
2
2gh

2g

If discharge Q and specific energy E are fixed (Q, E =

const.), two solutions for h arise from above equation
(h1 and h2).
Those two depths approach each other when
decreasing the specific energy E. At minimum specific
2 1/3
energy
q E = Emin only one depth can 1exist 3and that is
Emin =h+ hkr = hkr
hkr =
2
the critical
depth hkr (Fr = Fr =1) 2
2
g

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW cross-section specific energy

Specific energy diagram (specific energy curve

for cross-section)
(specific energy E is the function of depth h under the
constant specific discharge q)
IMPORTANT:
One curve is
obtained by fixed
Q (or q) and
varying the
h>hkr (Fr < 1) subcritical
channel bed
condition
slope I

h<hkr (Fr > 1) supercritical

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW cross-section specific energy

For any available specific energy E exists the

corresponding maximum discharge qmax that is
transported at critical condition (hkr and Vkr).

Example: the flow over a submerged hump .

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW cross-section specific energy

Flows in open channels will overcome the

obstacles (weirs) on economic way, achieving
the critical depth in the vicinity of the structure
crest (highest datum-level).
Flow regime upstream of the obstacle is
subcritical, on the weir profile or over the
submerged wide weir is critical, and downstream
of obstacle depends on channel bottom slope
(I0<Ikrit , h>hkr, Fr < 1 subcritical
I0>Ikrit , h<hkr, Fr > 1 supercritical).

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW cross-section specific energy

Let us apply the idea of specific energy to the

example of steady flow under the plate with the
neglected lines and local losses.

The depths before and after the plate (h1, h2) are
related to the same specific discharge q and

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW cross-section specific energy

Raising the plate above the critical depth hkr

results in maximum possible discharge qmax for the
available specific energy E.

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW cross-section specific energy

subcritic
Flow above the hump with
al
relatively low
denivelation h
(we assume neglected
energy losses).

supercrit
ical

MIRNO (Fr < 1)

SILOVITO (Fr >1)

bottom rise dz/dx > 0

bottom lowering dz/dx < 0

dh/dx < 0
dh/dx > 0

dh/dx > 0
dh/dx < 0

width widening dB/dx > 0

constriction dB/dx < 0

dh/dx > 0
dh/dx < 0

dh/dx < 0
dh/dx > 0

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW overflow and underflow

Flow over sharp-crested weir

P is the weir height, B is channel width, h0 is

incoming depth and V0 is average cross section
incoming velocity in subcritical regime of flow.
Energy losses are to be neglected.
2
Above the highest
would find the
0
Vone
2 weir datum
2
critical depth h:kr =3 E0 - P =3 hp +2g

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW overflow and underflow

Considering the critical condition over the weir crest
the overflowing discharge can be calculated applying
3/2
2
the equation:
2
V
3
Q =qB= ghkr B= g

0
h
+
p

3
2g

After a few steps of editing the above equation one

Q =CQ 2g hp3/2B
gets:
3/2

coefficient

1 2
CQ =discharge
CQ - nondimensional
=0,385
2 3

In case of high weir hp/P0 ; V00:

V
V the
h
Thehpabove equation
is also used for
otherVtypes
of
0
,Fr0 = 0 , form, roughness, Re = 0 0 ,We =
P
weirs.
gh0

hp

The value of discharge coefficient CQ is obtained

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW overflow and underflow

More common used form is the ogee weir or ogee

spillway with the rounded crest :

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW overflow and underflow

Underflow
At a sufficient upstream distance from the gate
(plate) the streamlines are parallel and the
pressure distribution along the water column is
hydrostatic.

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW overflow and underflow

The flow is pronouncedly nonuniform in gate

cross-section (streamlines are not parallel).
At a certain downstream distance from the gate
appears another cross-section with parallel
streamlines, so-called contraction cross-section.

The ratio between the gate opening height s and

contracted depth h1 is termed as contraction
coefficient CC (obtained experimentally ; h1 = CC
s).

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW overflow and underflow

For the flow under the gate of width B following
equality are valid:
- contraction cross-section area A1=CC s B
- continuity equation Q0=Bh0V0 = Q1= BCC sV1
- specific
energy
is equal for the both of cross-sections
2
2
V0
V1
E0h=
E
0 + 1 =CCs+
2g
2g
(energy losses are neglected)
V1 = 2g h0 - CCs +V02

s
Q =CC 1- CC
2gh0 sB
h0
Q =CQ 2gh0 sB

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW hydraulic jump

The transition from supercritical to subcritical flow

regime is related to the hydraulic phenomena
called hydraulic jump.

Rapid decrease in average velocity and increase of

depth, including the high degree of mechanic
energy loss takes place in the hydraulic jump.
Normal
hydrauli
c jump

Because of energy loss hv , the concept of specific

energy is no longer valid and applicable (energy

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW hydraulic jump

We can use the law of momentum conservation

and apply it on the control volume that include
normal hydraulic jump.
Normal
hydrauli
c jump
h12
h22
g - g - 0Lj =q V2 -V1
2
2

q =V1h1=V2h2

h10,h2 - first and second conjugate depth

- averaged tangential stresses at the bottom
L
- length of hydraulic jump

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW hydraulic jump

Applying the momentum and continuity equations

one defines the relationship between the
h1
h22:
v
2
2
conjugate
depths
h
i
h
1
h =
1+8Fr - 1
Fr =
>1
h =
1+8Fr - 1
2

gh1

Fr1 - Froude number in cross section where h1

After the calculation of h2 and V2 , one can find the
3
h
h

intensity
2
1 of energy loss (dissipation) within the
hv =
4h1h2 jump by :
hydraulic

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW hydraulic jump

The length of hydraulic jump is to be determined
experimentally. For the practical purpose one can use
relation Lj 6,1h2.
Increase of Fr1 causes the decrease of h2/h1 and hv/E1.

If downstream normal depth h is greater then second

conjugate depth h2, hydraulic jump will occur in socalled submerged form.

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW hydraulic jump

If submerged condition is not assured, one has to

carry out the so-called stilling basin.
Stilling basin provides the stabilization
(localization) of hydraulic jump within its
geometry.
Stilling basin is carried out after the spillway,
excavating the cave below the level of natural
river bottom.

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

Darcy velocity v = Q/A applies primarily in the
analysis of groundwater flow (flow in porous
underground aquifers).
It relies on the assumption of the continuum (v =
Q/A ) where the presence of the solid phase
within the flow cross-section A is not taken into
account.
Real velocity is higher then Darcy velocity, what
is especially important in the analysis of pollution
transport in aquifers.

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
Darcy experimental device is used for determine
the Darcy filtration coefficient (hydraulic
conductivity) k of particular filter material.
It is obtained by measuring the Darcy velocity as v
= Q/A and pezometric slope I = h/l (ratio of
piezometric drop h on path length l ).
h
v =k
l
Ql
k=
Ah

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
In general 3D case k is the tensor dependent on
geological strata and flowing liquid.
Groundwater flow can be observed as potential
flow.
h
v k I I
l
r
r
r
u
r
h
h
h
v ui v j w k u k ; v k
; w k
x
y
z
r kh r kh r kh u
r
r
v
i
j
k
v grad kh
x
y
z
kh
FLOW POTENTIAL
r
p
v grad
physicaly: h z
g

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
In potential flow the flow field is defined with flow
mesh that consists of equipotentials and
streamlines.

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI

Hydraulic (Dupuit) flow theory neglects the vertical

component of flow velocity (equipotentials are
vertical lines).
Vertical component of the flow can not be ignored
in the vicinity of the well (strong deviation from
Dipuit assumption).

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
Aquifers appear in two characteristic forms,
confined (pressurized) and unconfined (with the
free surface).

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
In the case of unconfined aquifers it is useful to
introduce the concept of Girinsky potential (
specific
potential).
u
r
discharge

q grad

h2

h
q k h
k 2
l
l
h2
k

l
l
2
h
k
2

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI

We analyze only the simpler cases of wells that are

constructed continuously from surface up to the
impermeable floor.
Unconfined aquifer

H02 - h 2
Q = k
R
ln
r
nonlinear Q - s relation

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
Confined aquifer

H0 - h
Q = 2 k M
R
ln
r
linear Q - s relation

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
Applying the Girinsky potential (in case of
pumping from an unconfined aquifer) enables the
linearization of the problem, because of the linear
relationship between pumping rate Q and Girinsky
potential drop .
kH02
kh 2
x 0 x ; 0
; x
; x 0 x
2
2
kh 2 kH02
2x
2

x ; h H0
; s H0 h;
2
2
k
Q R
0 x
ln LINEAR RELATION x and Q
1 2 3 2 r

x
This allows the application of superposition

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
Application of the superposition principle for a
group of wells (two or more wells) in the confined
or unconfined aquifer enables the calculation of
piezometric height (confined aquifers) and free
surface (unconfined aquifer) at arbitrary point in
the horizontal plane.

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
Unconfined aquifer

x 1 2
Q1 R Q2 R
x
ln
ln
2 r1 2 r2
m

Qi R
x i
ln
ri
1
1 2

Confined aquifer
m

Qi
R
s x si
ln
ri
1
1 2 kM

sx s1 s2

Q1
R
Q2
R
sx
ln
ln
2 kM r1 2 kM r2

kH02 khx2
x 0 x 2 2

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
The idea of superposition can be used in analyzing
the impact of the open watercourses on the
current field in the aquifer.
The watercourse is replaced by a fictive rechargewell that has the same intensity and opposite sign
(-Q means water inflow). The fictive recharge-well
is placed on the opposite side of the watercourse
and on the same distance L from the watercourse.

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
Confined aquifer

Q
R
Q
R
sx
ln
ln
2 kM r1 2 kM r2
Q R
R
sx
ln ln

2 kM
r1
r2
Q
r2
sx
ln
2 kM r1
SNIENJE U ZDENCU:
r2 2L r1 r0

WATERCOURSE

Q
2L
s0
ln
2 kM r0

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
The idea of superposition can be also used in
analyzing the impact of non-permeable vertical
boundary (barrier) on the current field in the
aquifer.
The vertical barrier is replaced by a fictive
extraction-well that has the same intensity and
sign (Q means water outflow). The fictive
extraction-well is placed on the opposite side of
the vertical barrier and on the same distance L
from the vertical barrier.

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

MEDI
Confined aquifer

Q
R
Q
R
sx
ln
ln
2 kM r1 2 kM r2
Q
R2
sx
ln
2 kM r1 r2
SNIENJE U ZDENCU:
r2 2L;
VERTICAL NON-PERMEABLE
BARRIER

r1 r0

Q
R2
s0
ln
2 kM 2L r0

FORCES ON IMMERSED SOLID BODY

A solid body experiences hydrodynamic forces
when it moves through fluid at rest (resistance).
The same intensity of hydrodynamic force will be
present in situation where the body is at rest and
fluid flows around it.
Forces and their intensity are directly related to
the viscosity.
At very low speed, viscosity is the major
contributor in the overall resistant force.
At high speed, viscosity has a noticeable effect
only very close to the solid body contour.
Occurrence of boundary layer separation from the

FORCES ON IMMERSED SOLID BODY

We analyze the two-dimensional body of arbitrary
shape in Cartesian plane.
Body surface area is A, and the infinitesimal
surface element dA is defined with an inclination
angle of against the positive x axis.
Stresses along the body contour are divided into
pressure (normal) and shear (tangential).
Integrating the stresses along x direction gives
drag force:
F -p cos dA sin dA
X

IntegratingFythe
stresses
x direction
gives
-p
sin dA along

cos
dA

A
hydrodynamic
lift forceA :

FORCES ON IMMERSED SOLID BODY

FORCES ON IMMERSED SOLID BODY

Drag force Fx consists of two parts:

- form resistance (first member on the right hand side)
- friction resistance (second member on the right hand
side)
In the case of flow around the body with symmetry
contours lift force Fy is equal to 0.

The primary engineering interest is related to the

high-Reynolds number flows where conditions in
boundary layer are highly dependent on the form of
the solid body.
If the pressure gradient is negative along the body

FORCES ON IMMERSED SOLID BODY

Boundary layer separation takes place at the point of

separation A.
In the case of oval body forms (e.g.. pier with circular
cross section), the separation point may not be fixed
in time.
The intensity of drag force FX is highly dependent on
the position A.
(A more on the left downstream region occupied

FORCES ON IMMERSED SOLID BODY

IMPORTANT:
Created eddies extract the mechanical energy from
the main stream, so the integral of pressures acting
on the body second half is lower then the integral
on first half (in x-direction).
In case of ideal fluid (rotation-free and inviscid) there
is no boundary layer. Consequently, separation and
eddy production do not exist, and the drag force is
zero.
For the practical
V02 use one has
V02defined the simple
FX =CA
F O=C OA P of drag
C X=Cforce
XforP the calculation
O
equations
FX and
2
2
form resistance FO:

FORCES ON IMMERSED SOLID BODY

Coefficients CX and CO are drawn out from the
experimentally obtained results:
FO
CO =
V02
AP
2

Generally, drag coefficient CX is the function of body

form, Reynolds number, roughness and Mach number
(Ma - neglected influence in most of the engineering
problems, e.g. for Vair < 200km/h).
If the body is short and has sharp
edges, the viscous forces have
negligible influence
(fixed position of separation,

FORCES ON IMMERSED SOLID BODY

If the body has conspicuous extent in the direction of
flow (thin horizontal plate) viscous force dominates in
drag force
(drag
FX force
sin FdA
X friction resistance force FT ):
A

2D forms

3D forms