PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

SYSTEMS: SECOND
GENERATION
Ian F. Akyildiz
Broadband & Wireless Networking Laboratory
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Tel: 404-894-5141; Fax: 404-894-7883
Email: ian@ece.gatech.edu
Web: http://www.ece.gatech.edu/research/labs/bwn

Differences between AMPS

and GSM

AMPS uses analog technology

GSM uses digital technology
AMPS has poor performance for data transfer
Both systems use control channels to initiate
calls.
AMPS uses 21 control channels while GSM uses 3.
AMPS is less secure than GSM
GSM has the SIM smart card which holds the
users personal information and phone settings.
In AMPS only the HLR has that data.
Both systems support ROAMING but GSM allows
more compatibility.

IFA2004

Differences between AMPS

and GSM
AMPS requires less power at the MS and at
the BS.
GSMs power control attempts to minimize
radio transmission power of the MS and BTS,
thus, minimizes the amount of co-channel
interference.
AMPS instead relies on the digital color code
(DCC) for that.
AMPS has a cell radius 1.5km - 25km
GSM is more flexible with cell sizes.
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EXAMPLES
IS-41 or IS-136 (D-AMPS) uses TDMA
scheme;
(AT&T Wireless, BellSouth, Southwestern
Bell)
IS-95 uses CDMA (Bell Atlantic/NYNEX,
Verizon, Sprint PCS)
GSM uses TDMA (used worldwide; here
Cingular; T-Mobile).
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INTRODUCTION:
USA: 2G Systems
1G -> AMPS -> problems to serve large number of
users.
2G Systems with Digital Modulation techniques
(called Digital Cellular) achieved large
improvements.
Late 80ies, USDC (US Digital cellular system) started
to support more users in a fixed spectrum allocation.
US Digital Cellular System (D-AMPS:
Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System)
/
\
/
\

Air Interface

IS-54
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Mobility Management

IS-41 (new version IS-136)

5

Reference Model for

North American Systems
The TIA Committees TR-45 and
TR-46 develop performance,
compatibility, interoperability,
and service standards.
TR-45.3 TDMA
TR-45.5 CDMA
New interfaces when compared
to GSM Model:
DMH: data message handler
collects billing information
IWF: interworking function
allows an MSC to connect
to other networks
AUX: auxiliary equipment
can connect to an MSC
Messaging is carried out by
protocols very similar to SS-7
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IS-54
IS-54 Architecture similar to AMPS, GSM
in terms of MSC, BS, Mobile Stations, HLR, VLRs
IS-54 standardized in 1990 (Interim Standard-IS)
IS-54 shares same frequencies, frequency reuse
plan and base stations as AMPS so that base
stations and subscriber units could be equipped
with both AMPS and IS 54 channels within the
same piece of equipment.
Both AMPS and IS-54 cellular carriers provide new
customers with IS-54 phones and may gradually
replace AMPS base stations with IS-54 BSs
channel by channel over time known as D-AMPS
AMPS - D-AMPS (IS-54)
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IS-54
IS-54 uses TDMA supporting 3 full rate users or 6 half rate users
on each AMPS channel.
6 times more capacity than AMPS
IS-54 uses the same 45 MHz FDD scheme as AMPS
REMARK:
* Change from Analog to Digital
* Temporary increase in Interference and dropped calls
in AMPS; since each BS changed over to digital; the number of
analog channels in geographic area is decreased.
Compatibility with AMPS:
* IS 54 Forward/Reverse control channels use exactly the same
signaling technique as AMPS.
* Voice Channels are 4ary pi/4 DQPSK modulation with a
channel rate 48.6 kbps.

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IS-54
Forward and Reverse control channels use the
same 10 kbps FSK signaling scheme as in AMPS
REMARK:
* IS 136 (formerly IS-54-C) includes pi/4 DQPSK
modulation for control channels.
* IS-54-C provides 4-ary keying instead of
FSK on
control channels
REASONS: Increase control channel data rate
also provide special services like paging etc..

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RADIO INTERFACE
(IS-54)
GOAL: Smooth transition from AMPS IS-54
IS 54 designed to operate using both AMPS and IS 54 standards.
Multiple Access TDMA/FDD
Modulation pi/4 DQPSK
Channel Bandwidth 30 kHz (sam as in AMPS)
Reverse Channel Freq. BW 824-894 MHz (same as in AMPS)
Forward Channel Freq. BW 869-894 MHz (same as in AMPS)
FW and Reverse Channel Data Rates 48.6 kbps
Channel Coding 7 bit CRC and rate convolutional coding
of constraint length 6.
Users per channels 3 (full rate speech coder of 7.95
kbps/user) 6 (half rate speech coder of 3.975 kbps/user).

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CHANNELS (IS-54)
Control Channels AMPS Control
Channels
42 Primary AMPS Control Channels
Primary
+ IS 54 (42 additional control channels)
dedicated for IS 54 use only (Secondary
Control Channels)

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DATA CHANNELS
(IS-54)
Digital Traffic Channel (DTC) carries user
information (speech or user data)
Reverse DTC: carries speech from mobile
to BS.
Forward DTC: carries speech from base to
mobile

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DATA CHANNELS
(IS-54)
Coded Digital Verification Color Code
Channel (CDVCC)
Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

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DATA CHANNELS
(IS-54)
Coded Digital Verification Color Code Channel (CDVCC)
Is a 12 bit message sent in every time slot.
(Function similar to SAT (Supervisory Audio Tone) as in AMPS
allows each BS and its mobiles to confirm that they are
properly connected during a call.
It is an 8-bit number ranging from 1 and 255 protected with 4
additional channel coding bits (12,8) Hamming code.
BS CDVCC values on Forward Voice Channel
Each subscriber using TDMA channel must receive, decode
and retransmit the same CDVCC value to BS on the reverse
voice channel.
Handshake: If not, then time slot will be relinguished for other
users.

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DATA CHANNELS
(IS-54)
Slow Associated Control Channel
(SACCH)
Sent in every time slot.
Carries various control and supervisory message
between mobile and BS, e.g., power level changes
and handoff requests.
Also used by mobile to report results of signal
strength measurements of neighboring base
stations
to help BS to do MAHO (Mobile Assisted
Handoff).
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DATA CHANNELS (IS

54)
Fast Associated Control Channel
(FACCH)
(Signaling Channel)
Important control or specialized traffic data
between BS and mobiles;
e.g., call release instructions, MAHO,
mobile status requests.
The FACCH data when transmitted takes
the place of user info data within a frame.
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Frame Structure for IS-54

(Mobile to BS)
1 Frame=1944 bits (97 symbols)= 40 ms
1

Data SYN DATA

25 frames/sec

CD DATA

6.67msec 324 bits (260

user data)

Guard Time (6 bits) (when no signal is transmitted)

R Ramp Time (6 bits) (to allow transmitter to reach its full output power
level)
Data 16 bits
SYN 28 bits
DATA 122 bits
SACCH 12 bits
CDVCC

12 bits (helps to identify the frequency

channel to which mobile is tuned)
DATA 122 bits
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Mobility
IS 41Management
<-> GSM

IS-41
IS-136

(new version
Procedure for delivering
calls to
mobile users in GSM very similar to IS
)
41.
Note that names, contents, lengths of
messages may be different.

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IS-41 Standard for MSCMSC interface

IS-41 is primarily used in the core network to
provide services such as automatic roaming,
authentication, intersystem handoff, short
message service, etc.
All wireless network elements such as the MSC,
HLR, VLR, EIR, and AUC, use this messaging
protocol to communicate among themselves
Signaling protocol stack very similar to SS-7
Intersystem handoff: handoff involving two
BSSs controlled by different MSCs.
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IS-41: Intersystem Handoff

The current MSC will request a RSS measurement from the
candidate MSC.
Once RSS measurements indicate the candidate MSC as suitable
for handoff, the two MSCs will complete the intersystem
handoff.
Three types of handoff:
Handoff forward: transfer from one MSC to another MSC of a
new system
Handoff backward: transfer from the new MSC back to the old
MSC
Handoff third: transfer from an MSC in a second system to a
MSC of a third system

During handoff, IS-41 signaling messages will carry terminal

information, call information, and air-interface information
(serving and destination cells and channels). It also performs
authentication procedures between the two systems.
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Differences IS-41 When the new VLR receives the registration

GSM
affirmation (REGNOT IS-41) from HLR, it

assigns a new TMSI to the terminal for the

new RA.
HLR also provides new VLR with all relevant
subscriber profile information required for
call handling (e.g., call screening lists, etc.)
as part of affirmation message.
Thus, in contrast to IS-41, authentication and
subscriber profile information are obtained
from both HLR and VLR and not just the HLR.
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OVERVIEW
IS-54
Access Technology

TDMA/FDD

Freq Band:
BS
869-894
Mobile
824-849
Channel Spacing
30kHz
Modulation
pi/4 DQPSK
Power Max/
Average Milliwatts
600/200
Speech Rate (kbps
7.95
rate)
Frame Duration (ms)
40
Coding
rate
Forward

Reverse; CRC

convolutional

GSM
TDMA/FDD

IS-95
CDMA (DS)/FDD

935-960 (1805-1880)
890-915 (1710-1785)
200kHz
GMSK
1000/125
13

869-894
824-849
1250kHz
BPSK/QPSK
600
8 (variable

4.615
rate

20
rate conv for

conv.

1/3 rate conv. for

DQPSK: Differential Quadratic Phase Shift Keying; QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying; GFSK: Gaussian
Freq. Shift Keying; BPSK: Binary Phase Shift Keying; GMSK: Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying

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IS-95
Digital Cellular:

Two different directions for the airinterface:

IS-136 standard based on TDMA
IS-95 standard based on CDMA

Interoperability was only possible via dual

mode telephones
IS-41 standard has now evolved to
support both IS-136 and IS-95
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IS-95
IS-95 is the North American digital cellular
standard that employs CDMA as the
Access Method as well as the Air-Interface.
It was developed by Qualcomm around 1990.
CDMA/AMPS dual mode phones were produced by Qualcomm in 1994.

Also called cdmaOne.

In Dec. 1993, the TIA published Qualcomms airinterface specifications as the interim standard IS-95.
Formally adopted in July 1993 and revised in May 1995.

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IS-95 CDMA
Digital AMPS increased capacity of AMPS
by factor 3

First Code Division Multiple Access

(CDMA) cellular system was
developed in 1990, claimed to
increase capacity of AMPS by factor
20.
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IS-95 CDMA
GOAL:
Low Cost
Light-weight hand-held portable units
Battery Life
Spectrally efficient
Low link budgets
Minimum number of base stations
Excellent grade of service
Excellent scalability
Reduction of dropped calls
Reduction of fading and poor voice quality
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CDMA
CDMA is both an Access Method and an Air-Interface.

Similarities:

Core fixed network infrastructure GSM core network structure

Radio resource management, mobility management, and security

same as in TDMA (D-AMPS) systems.

There are differences in terms of

power control
* Employing soft handoff
* Handling the

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Access Method CDMA

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
All terminals send on the same frequency
probably at the same time and can use the
whole bandwidth of the transmission channel
Each sender has a unique random number,
the sender XORs the signal with this random
number
The receiver can tune into this signal if it
knows the pseudo random number; tuning is
done via a correlation function
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Access Method CDMA

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
User data stream encoded with convolutional
code rate, interleaved and spread by one of 64
orthogonal spreading sequences (Walsh functions).
Each MS in a given cell is assigned a different
spreading sequence, providing perfect separation
among signals from different users.
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Access Method CDMA

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
To reduce interference between MSs which
use same spreading sequence in different
cells and to provide the desired spectral
characteristic, all signals in a cell are
SCRAMBLED using a pseudo-random
sequence of length 2^15 chips.
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CDMA (Code Division Multiple

Access )

User 1

...

User 2

User n

Frequency

Time

Code
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CDMA (Advantages and

Disadvantages)
Advantages:
All terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
Huge code space compared to frequency space
Interference (e.g. white noise) is not coded
Forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
Disadvantages:
Higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into
the medium and start receiving if there is a signal)
All signals should have the same strength at a receiver

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CDMA: Further Advantages

and Disadvantages
Advantages:
CDMA provides an increase in system capacity when
compared with the analog and TDMA systems.
CDMA improves quality of voice by using a better voice
coder.
CDMA has resistance to multipath and fading.
CDMA implements soft handoffs.
CDMA has less power consumption (about 10% of analog or
TDMA phones) because of implementation of power control.
CDMA does not require frequency planning because all cells
employ the same frequency at the same time.
Disadvantage:
Necessity for power control and complexity.

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Comparison
TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
Approach

Idea

TDMA

FDMA

CDMA

segment sending
time into disjoint
time-slots, demand
driven or fixed patterns
all terminals are
active for short
periods of time on
the same frequency
synchronization in
the time domain

segment the
frequency band into
disjoint sub-bands

spread the spectrum

using orthogonal codes

every terminal has its

own frequency,
uninterrupted

all terminals can be active

at the same place at the
same moment,
uninterrupted
code plus special
receivers

established, fully
digital, flexible

simple, established,
robust

Disadvantage
s

guard space
needed (multipath
propagation),
synchronization difficult

inflexible,
frequencies are a
scarce resource

flexible, less frequency

planning needed, soft
handover
complex receivers, needs
more complicated power
control for senders

Comment

standard in fixed
networks, together
with FDMA/SDMA
used in many
mobile networks

typically combined
with TDMA
(frequency hopping
patterns) and SDMA
(frequency reuse)

still faces some problems,

higher complexity,
lowered expectations; will
be integrated with
TDMA/FDMA

Terminals

Signal
separatio
n
Advantages

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filtering in the
frequency domain

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Air-Interface CDMA
The air-interface in CDMA is not
symmetrical on the forward and reverse
channels (separated by 45MHz)

One Forward Channel (1.25 MHz in 824849 MHz bands): transmissions originate at
a single transmitter (BS) and transmissions
for all users are synchronized.
One Reverse Channel (1.25 MHz in 869894 MHz bands): mobile terminals transmit
whenever they have to.

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Air-Interface CDMA
Forward Channels (BS MOBILE):

Pilot (1 Channel):
Provides a reference signal to all MSs within a cell
for demodulation. It is also used for signal
strength comparison. Determines when to handoff.
Synchronization (1 Channel):
Used to acquire initial time synchronization. The
sync message includes the system and network
identification, coding information, and the paging
channel data rate. Operates at 1200kbps.

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Air-Interface CDMA
Forward Channels:

Paging (7 channels)

As in GSM, used to page the MS when there is an

incoming call, and to carry the control messages for call
setup. Operates at 9600,4800, 2400 bps)

Forward Traffic (63 channels):

Carries the actual user information.

Two possible rate sets, RS1 and RS2.
RS1 supports date rates of 9.6, 4.8, 2.4, and 1.2 kbps.
RS2 supports 14.4, 7.2, 3.6, and 1.8 kbps.
Multiplexed with power control information.

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Air-Interface CDMA
Reverse Channels (MOBILE BS):
Access (max. 32 channels):

Used by the MS to transmit information to the BS such as call

origination, response to a page and so on.
Fixed Data Rate 4800 kbps. Random access channel user uniquely
identified by their long codes.

Reverse Traffic:

Supports voice data at two rate sets: RS1 and RS2.

It is used to send information related to the signal strength of the
pilot and frame error rate statistics to one BS or multiple BSs.
It is also used to transmit control information to the BS such as a
handoff completion message.
Operates on variable data rate.

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IS-95 CDMA
Channels
Types of Channels
Overview
Forward Channels
Pilot
Synchronization
Paging
Traffic
Reverse channels

Application
System mon.
Sync.
Signaling
Voice/data

Access

Signaling

Traffic

Voice/data

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IS-95 CDMA Interesting

Features
Multiple users can share same
frequency
Soft capacity limit: more users raises
noise floor linearly, no absolute limit
on number of users - performance
degrades gradually for all users
Multipath fading is reduced by signal
spreading
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IS-95 CDMA Interesting

Features (cont)
Spatial diversity provides soft handoff:
MSC monitors signal of a user from
multiple base stations and chooses best
version of signal at any time
Self-Jamming is a problem:
Because spreading sequences of
different users are not exactly orthogonal

When despreading, other users can

contribute significantly to receiver
decision statistic
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IS-95 CDMA Interesting

Features (cont)
Near-Far Problem:
If power of multiple users are unequal,
the strongest received mobile signal will
capture demodulator at the base station

Base stations must implement

power control to ensure that each
mobile within coverage area
provides same signal level to base
station receiver
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IS-95 CDMA Interesting

Features (cont)
The system can move a call from
digital to analog when the call
enters the coverage area of a cell
that does not have CDMA
capability.
The opposite does not work.

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Mobility and Radio Resource

Management in IS-95
Soft Handoff

Note: Unlike channelized wireless systems that assign

different radio channels during a handoff (called a
hard handoff), spread spectrum mobiles share the
same channel in every cell, thus the term handoff
does not mean a physical change in the assigned
channel, but rather that a different base station
handles the radio communication task.
Refers to the process by which an MS is in
communication with multiple candidate BSs before
finally deciding to communicate its traffic through one
of them.

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Mobility and Radio Resource

Management in IS-95
Soft Handoff

Reason to implement it is based on the near-far problem and

the associated power control mechanism:
If an MS moves far away from a BS and continues to
increase power to compensate for the near-far problem,
it might cause a lot of interference to MSs in neighboring
cells.
To avoid the above situation and to ensure that an MS is
connected to the BS with the largest RSS (Received
Signal Strength), a soft handoff strategy is implemented.

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Soft Handoff
IS-95 defines three types of soft handoff:
(a)

Softer Handoff: between two sectors of the same cell

Soft Handoff: between two sectors of different cells

(c) Soft-Softer Handoff:
(b)

includes two sectors from the same cell and

a third sector from a different cell.

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Soft Handoff
A controlling BS coordinates
the addition or deletion of
other BSs
The primary BS uses a
handoff direction message
(HDM) to indicate the pilot
channels to be used or
removed.
At some point, the primary BS
is also changed after handoff.
The signals from multiple BSs
are combined in the BSC or
MSC and processed as a single
call. This is achieved by using
a frame selector join message.
A frame selector remove
message is used to remove the
old BS.

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Soft Handoff
The pilot channels of each cell are involved in the handoff
mechanism.

Only channel not subject to power control and providing a measure of

the RSS.

The MS maintains a list of pilot channels that it can hear and

classifies them into:

Active Set: pilots continuously monitored or used by the MS

(MS has three RAKE fingers that allows it to monitor or use

up to three pilots).
Candidate Set: can have at most six pilots, not in the active
set but with sufficient RSS to be used.
Neighbor Set: contains pilots that belong to neighboring cells
and are intimated to the MS by a message on the paging
channel.
Remaining Set: all other possible pilots in the system.
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Soft Handoffs and Thresholds

Whenever the strength of a pilot falls below
a threshold, the MS starts a dwell timer.
Unless the pilot strength goes back above
the threshold before the timer expires, the
MS will drop it from a given set.
There is a trade-off in setting high and low
values for these thresholds and timers.

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Soft Handoffs and Thresholds

If the strength of a candidate pilot channel
is above the pilot detection threshold
(T_ADD), this pilot must be added to the
active set and the MS enters a soft handoff
region.
If T_ADD is too small, there may be false
alarms caused by noise or interfering
signals.
If T_ADD is too large, useful pilot are not
detected, and the call may be dropped.
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Handoff Thresholds in IS-95

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Handoff Thresholds in IS-95

1.

As soon as the strength of the pilot exceeds T_ADD, it is

transferred to the candidate set, and the MS sends the
new pilot strength measurement to the BS that is
transmitting the current pilot.

2.

The BS sends a handoff direction message to the MS.

The pilot is transferred to the active set.

3.

The MS acquires a traffic channel and sends a handoff

completion message.

4.

After the pilot strength falls below T_DROP, the handoff

timer is started.
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Handoff Thresholds in IS-95

If it is still below T_DROP after the timer expires,

the MS sends another pilot strength measurement to
the BS associated with the pilot.

The BS responds with HDM without the pilot in it.

The MS moves the pilot to the neighbor set.

The MS then sends a handoff completion message.

At some point, the BS may send it a neighbor update

list message that no longer contains the pilot and it
is moved into the remaining set.
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Power Control in CDMA

Co-channel and adjacent channel interference are not the
major problems in CDMA. Why?
The interference is from other users transmitting in the
frequency band at the same time.
To avoid the near-far problem, it is important to implement
good power control.
Signal strength may be good in CDMA, but frames may still
be received in error because of interference.
Thus, Frame Error Rate (FER) is used for power control
decisions rather than the signal strength used in other PCS
systems.
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Open Loop Reverse Link

Power Control in IS-95
RULE: Use a transmit power that is inversely proportional
to the received signal strength of pilots from all BSs.
On the access channel, the MS sends a request
using a weak signal if the pilot is strong.
An ACK may not be received because the transmit
power was low or because of collisions.
If no ACK is received, a stronger signal is
transmitted.
This is repeated until a maximum power level is
reached.
The process is repeated after a back-of delay.
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Open Loop Reverse Link

Power Control in IS-95
Up to 15 attempts can be made to obtain a
traffic channel.
Disadvantages: Assumption that forward
and reverse channels are identical; slow
response time; and using the total power
received from all BSs in calculating the
required transmit power.

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Closed Loop Reverse Link Power

Control in IS-95
On Downlink channel -> A power control bit is
transmitted every 1.25 ms (800 times per second).
A 0 indicates the MS should increase the power
and a 1 indicates it should decrease it.
Every 1.25 ms, in the BS, the receiver determines
the received signal to interference ratio by sampling
it 16 times.
If it is above a preset target, the MS is
instructed to reduce its power by 1 dB.

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Closed Loop Reverse Link Power

Control in IS-95

Inner-Loop Power Control:

If below the target, the MS is instructed to

increase its power by 1 dB.
The target value controls the long-term frame
error rate.

Outer-Loop Power Control:

The target is varied over time to reflect accurate

values related to velocity, fading, environment,
and so on. It is reduced (increased) by x dB
every 20 ms if the FER is small (large) enough.

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Closed Loop Reverse Link Power

Control in IS-95

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Forward Link Power Control

Employed to reduce inter-cell interference.
Wthin a cell, multiple users employ orthogonal sequences
and the primary source of interference is from users of
other cells or from multi-path.
A mobile assisted power control is employed:
The MS periodically reports the FER on the forward link
to the BS, which will then adjust its transmit power
accordingly.
A maximum transmit power is defined to avoid excessive
interference.
A minimum transmit power is defined to avoid allowing
voice quality to drop.
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Overview of 2G Systems
(S/I)min
AMPS
GSM
IS-54
IS-95

IFA2004

~18 dB
~11 dB
~16 dB
~15 dB

N
7
4
7
1

61