Crude Oil and Gas Transportation

6.
Crude Oil and Gas

HAPTE
R Transportation
6.1 Pumps
6.2 Compressors
6.3
6.
4
Petroleum
Engineering Department
Internal
Measurement of Crude Oil

and Gas
Pipeline and
Tankers
Production Engineering II
Able to
1. Describe the basic mechanism of the main
types of pumps, advantages and disadvantages
of certain pumps as well as certain important
operating problems such as cavitation.
2. Describe the basic mechanism of the main
types of compressors, advantages and
disadvantages of certain compressors as well
as certain important operating problems such
as surge.
3. Describe custody transfer and the basic
mechanism of important types of crude oil
meter and gas meter.
4. Describe the basics of pipeline design,
installation, and operation and maintenance
of pipeline.
Petroleum
Internal
Pumps
Petroleum
Internal
Pumps
Pum p a m echanicaldevice that adds energy to a liquid for the

purpose of increasing its fl
ow rate and static pressure (N ote that
pum p does not create pressure. It only provides fl
ow . Pressure is
just an indication of the am ount of resistance to fl
ow )
The prim ary function is to convert the rotary m otion of a prim e

m over into a linear m otion of the liquid in the piping. A secondary
function, occasionally, is to m ix fl
u ids.
Pum ps are used in a production facilities to m ove liquid from a low
pressure or low elevation location to one of a higher pressure or
elevation.
Thus, w herever possible, it is advantageous to locate the facilities

equipm ent and select operating pressures in such a w ay that
m inim ize the need for pum ping, or the volum e for pum ping.
Petroleum
Internal
Larg e p u m p s provide the pressure driving force necessary to m ove

oilthrough piping from point to point during its gathering,
processing, and pipeline transport. Initially, high form ation pressure
m ay provide the required driving force for gathering and processing,
but subsequent pressure decline m ay require addition of pum ps later
in the fi
eld life.
Crude oilis stabilized by stage separation to or near atm ospheric

pressure for transportation and storage. Therefore, large m ain oilline
(M O L) pum ps are required for pipeline transport or transfer pum ps
for delivery into other tanker or storage.
Large pum ps are also needed for w ater injection and produced w ater
transport and disposal. Present practice is to inject w ater into m any
form ations early in the life of the fi
eld. Produced w ater m ust also be
transported in the production facilities.
Petroleum
Internal
Pum ps are also required for m any purposes such as service w ater
(desalter dilution, process cooling, fresh w ater m aker, m ud m ixing,
w ashdow n station (H SE), fl
are-tip spray w ater, fi
re-extinguishing,
sanitary and drinking w aters (living quarters w ater system ).
S m all-f l
o w m eterin g p u m p s inject chem icals such as corrosion
inhibitors and dem ulsifi
ers.
Petroleum
Internal
Pump efficiency
Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio of liquid

horsepower output from the pump to the shaft horsepower
input for the pump. Liquid horsepower output is determined
by the flow rate and pressure delivered from the pump. The
shaft horsepower is delivered to the pump from the power
unit (pump drivers).
If a pump is 100% efficient, the mechanical horsepower

input would be equal to the liquid horsepower output. No
pump is 100 % efficient, so the mechanical horsepower
input will be greater than the water horsepower output.
Lower efficiencies are due to energy losses caused by

friction, leakages originating from pressure differentials
within the pump case and losses due to a more complex
nature. The efficiency of a particular pump is estimated
by determining two values. These values are pump flow rate
and total head.
Petroleum
Internal
Driver for pumps

Driver provides the power for pumps. There are many types
of drivers electric motors, internal combustion
engines, steam turbines, gas turbines and hydraulic-power
recovery turbines.
The usual driver for all types of pumps is the electric
motors (usually fixed-speed induction motor).
Main Oil Line (MOL) pumps may be driven by gas turbines.
Emergency pumps may be driven by diesel engines (a type
of internal combustion engine).
Because the power required by pumps is generally lower
than compressors, the purchase and operating costs of
pumps are usually much lower and does not dominate the
total cost of installation, as compared to compressors
Petroleum
Internal
Pump classification
Pum ps are classifi

ed as either kinetic or positive displacem ent
pum ps.
In a kinetic pump, the kinetic or velocity energy of the

fluid is first increased and then converted to potential
or pressure energy.
In a positive displacement pump, the liquid is compressed
mechanically to increase the potential energy of the
fluid.
Petroleum
Internal
Centrifugal Pump
A centrifugalpum p is a type of kinetic
pum p.
It propels liquid in a sm ooth,
uninterrupted stream , and then
accelerate the liquid by im pellers and
convert the induced kinetic energy of
the liquid into pressure energy by an
increase in cross-section.
The pump consists of a rotating
impeller, mounted inside a
casing.
Petroleum
Internal
10
Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugalpum ps are classifi
ed
as either radialfl
ow or axialfl
ow .
Radial flow pump
For a radial flow pump,

fluid enters the center of
the impeller eye of
impeller, and is propelled
radially to the outside by
means of centrifugal force.
For an axial flow pump,
fluid flow is parallel to
the axis of the shaft.
The velocity is imparted by
the impeller vanes, shaped
like airfoils.
Axial flow pump
Petroleum
Internal
11
Centrifugal Pump
The advantages of centrifugalpum ps:
It is sim ple, have no valves, few m oving parts and therefore
tend to have low er m aintenance costs than positive
displacem ent pum ps.
It can m ove at high speeds w ith m inim um m aintenance, and
the output is very steady and consistent.
It is sm aller than other types of pum p that gives the sam e
throughput.
H ence, it is relatively cheaper
For pum ps w ith closed im pellers (sidew alls enclosing the
vanes), it can handle liquids containing dirt, abrasives, large
solids.
It can operate at low suction pressure, because there is very
little pressure drop and no sm allclearance (sm allspace)
betw een the suction fl
ange and im peller.
Petroleum
Internal
12
Centrifugal Pump
The disadvantages:
Although several impellers can be installed in series
to create large heads, it is only practical to
achieve high pressure when there are large flow
rates.
Low maximum efficiencies compared to positive
displacement pumps.
Is susceptible to cavitation a phenom enon caused by
bubbles or cavities form ed inside the liquid due to low
pressure around the im peller. The bubbles or cavities can
collapse or im plode, triggering intense shockw aves inside the
pum p.
Cavitation can cause:
D estruction of im peller
Failure of pum p housing
Excessive vibration, leading to prem ature sealand bearing
failure
H igher pow er consum ption
D ecreased fl
ow and pressure
Petroleum
Internal
13
Positive Displacement Pump

A positive displacem ent pum p traps a
portion of a liquid in a fi
xed volum e in
the inlet pressure section and forces
it m echanically to the discharge
outlet section of the pum p, increasing
its pressure.
The entrapm ent m ay be done by a
reciprocating piston or plunger in a
cylinder or by rotating slide vane or
gear or screw .
3 types of PD Pum p:
Reciprocating pum ps
Rotary pum ps
M etering pum ps
Petroleum
Internal
14
Positive Displacement Pump

Reciprocating pump
Consists of a piston-cylinder or plunger, with
appropriate check valves in the suction and discharge
ports to prevent back-flow.
The pump fills on back stroke and discharges on the
forward stroke.
Petroleum
Internal
15
Advantages of Reciprocating pump:

High efficiency (85% 90%) regardless of the pump
speed and changes in the required head.
Can run at much lower operating speeds than

centrifugal pumps hence can handle viscous
fluids.
The flow rate of pump is constant for a given
speed of flow.
Disadvantages:
Higher maintenance cost because of the pulsating
flow and large number of moving parts (effect of
mechanical and acoustical vibrations)
Poorer at handling liquids that contain solids.
Require larger suction pressure than centrifugal
pumps because of its pulsating flow and high
pressure drop.
Heavier and bigger than centrifugal pump.
Petroleum
Internal
16
Rotary pump
Consists of a chamber with internal actuator
elements that trap the liquid between the actuator
and the chamber wall, thus propelling the liquid
through the pump.
There are further 3 types of rotary pumps: vane,
gear and screw (different actuator elements)
Petroleum
Internal
17
Packed-plunger type liquid-end
Metering pump
Use a plunger to inject a predetermined flow of liquid with
extreme accuracy (+-1%).
Consists of a drive mechanism to
displace the liquid, a prime mover
i.e. driver (electric motor) and a
liquid end or displacement chamber.
Liquid end: Two types: packed plunger
and diaphragm. In packed-plunger end
pump, the plunger contacts the pumped
liquid. The pump is economical and
simple, and can develop high
discharge pressure (7,500 psi). But
packing is required to seal the
plunger and the plunger bore, and
some leakage is required for cooling.
In diaphragm end pump, the plunger
moves the plastic diaphragm but it
does not contact the pumped liquid.
Petroleum
Internal
Diaphragm type liquid-end

18
Gas Compressors
Petroleum
Internal
19
Gas Compressor
Agas compressoris a mechanical device that increases

the pressure of agasby reducing its
volume.Compressorsare similar to pumps - both
increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport
the fluid through a pipe. (An air compressor is a
special type of gas compressor that converts power from
electric motor or diesel engine, into potential energy
stored in pressurized (compressed) air).
Gas compressor is required for gas compression in all

aspects of gas processing gas lift, gas gathering,
condensate recovery, gas reinjection, gas storage and
liquefaction for transport.
Two major classification of gas compressor: Positive

displacement and dynamic.
Petroleum
Internal
20
Types of Gas Compressor
Petroleum
Internal
21
Review Question
Compare the four popular types of compressors:

Reciprocating, Centrifugal, Sliding Vane and
Rotary. Compare in terms of its mechanical
operations, horsepower requirements, operating
speeds and pressures, and applications.
Petroleum
Internal
22
Suction Scrubber
A very important feature of any compressor installation
is the suction scrubber.
It is absolutely necessary to prevent contaminants
(solids and liquids) from entering a compressor.
Solids can be present in gas streams, either picked up
in previous piping and equipment, or rust and mill
scale from pipe and equipment walls.
Salt may accumulate as brine evaporates
Liquid droplets result from condensation of water
and/or process condensate or entrained corrosion
inhibitors, glycol or amine.
Dirt and liquid can destroy cylinder oil film in a
reciprocating compressor.
Centrifugal comp can tolerate some liquid in mist form
but not in slug form.
Petroleum
Internal
23
Surge
Surge occurs when the compressor cannot generate the
head required to overcome the imposed discharge/suction
pressure ratio
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OT8Y0DeQ_cw
Why does surge occurs and why we need to prevent surge
from happening?
Petroleum
Internal
24
Measurement of Crude Oil and Gas
Petroleum
Internal
25
Custody Transfer
Custody transfer in industry refers to the transactions
involving transporting physical substance from one
operator to another.
During custody transfer, ACCURACY is of utmost
importance to both the company delivering the material,
and the recipient, when transferring the material.
There are 3 most popular measurement methods of in
custody transfer:
Storage Tanks
LACT (Lease Automatic Custody Transfer) Unit
Turbine meters
Petroleum
Internal
26
Metering
Metering is the measurement of the gross volume of a
product and the determination of the corrections needed
to establish the net volume of the product.
Purpose:
Determine the quantity of the product being sold or
bought and changing ownership
Reservoir management, where measurement is required
of all reservoir fluids produced and injected
Operations control for field facilities, pipeline
facilities, process plants and other systems
Petroleum
Internal
27
Crude Oil measurement
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
(PD) METER
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
(DP) METER
TURBINE OR PROPELLERTYPE METER
ULTRASONIC METER
VORTEX METER
CORIOLIS MASS METER
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FLOWMETER
Petroleum
Internal
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Review Question
Describe the different types of meters its mechanism

and usage
Petroleum
Internal
29
LACT
LACT stands for Lease Automatic Custody Transfer. It is
a unit that automatically measures the net volume and
the quality of liquid hydrocarbons.
Formerly, all oil measurements were taken by hand.
Therefore, volume, temperature, API gravity and S&W
measurements were performed manually. Nowadays, the
industry uses LACT unit:
The unit measures the quantity and quality of oil
without a gauge or other personnel present
It saves time and money for the production company
and operator, while providing a systematic means of
monitoring all oil transferred from lease to
carrier.
Petroleum
Internal
30
A LACT unit must perform 3 basic functions:

It must accurately measure the quantity of oil
transferred
It must sample the oil being transferred so that it
can be tested to determine the quality
It must monitor the S&W content to prevent the
transfer of bad oil
Bad oil
Contains an unacceptable amount of S&W (worthless
and accelerates corrosion of the pipe)
It is necessary to keep the amount of S&W to a
minimum (acceptable by the owner of the pipeline or
other carrier)
Common S&W values:
0 0.5 % where desalting is required
1 % for most crude oil
3 % for heavy oils
Petroleum
Internal
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LACT schematic
LACT metering skid
http://www.industrialseparation.com/2012092
1_lease-automatic-custody-transfer-lact-wor
king-principle.html
Petroleum
Internal
32
Gas measurement
The most popular and almost always chosen for natural
gas custody transfer is orifice meters.
.
Other types of gas meters are gas turbines meters, and
occasionally, vortex and ultrasonic meters.
Orifice meter is essentially a conduit and a
restriction to create a pressure drop. Orifice means
opening.
Petroleum
Internal
33
Gas measurement
An orifice plate is a
restriction in the pipe
that forces the fluid
to
.
accelerate and then
decelerate as it flows
through the meter.
Flow rate is in inferred
from the pressure
difference measured by
pressure taps upstream and
downstream of the plate.
The fundamental equation
for gas measurement is:
= Flow rate at base conditions on cu ft/hr

= differential pressure in inches of water
= absolute static pressure, psia
= orifice flow constant
Petroleum
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Pipeline and Tankers
Petroleum
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Transportation of crude oil/natural gas

For crude oil, crude oil can be transported by
pipeline, shuttle tankers (offshore fields) or small
trucks (small onshore fields).
At offshore, if there is no pipeline, - if the oil is
stored on an FPSO, there is a special loading system to
transfer the oil from the FPSO tank to the shuttle
tankers (that comes a couple of days a week once or
twice a week). If the oil is stored in a storage tank
on a platform, a special loading system called a bowmooring device is used.
Petroleum
Internal
36
Pipeline design of crude oil pipeline

Design and analysis of crude oil pipelines involves the
understanding and application of the fundamentals of
fluid mechanics to the flow of oil through cylindrical
pipes.
The motive force required to transport the oil is
almost always provided by centrifugal pumps. But
determining the required force is complex because:
There are elevation gradients in the pipeline
There are TWO pressure restrictions that must be
adhered to: (1) pressure must not exceed the MAXIMUM
ALLOWABLE WORKING PRESSURE (MAWP) of the pipeline;
(2) pressure must not fall below the crude-oil
BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE, which will cause the oil to
vaporise, creating a dangerous two-phase flow.
Petroleum
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Pipeline design of natural gas pipeline

Design and analysis of natural-gas pipelines involve the
application of mass, energy and force balances.
Compression and formation pressure drive the flow.
Pressure loss due to flow resistance is due primarily to
pipe friction. Pipeline elevation gradients do not
influence pressure loss very much for single-phase flow
due to the relatively low density of the gas. But when
two-phase flow exists, elevation pressure gradients
becomes more important and frictional pressure drop
becomes more significant. (Why?)
When there is two-phase flow, there is a phenomenon called
liquid hold-up that happens when liquid is stacked up
in the pipe, behind the flow of gas. We need to be able
to predict the hold-up so that we will be able to size
and operate (pressure) the pipeline accordingly.
Petroleum
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Pipeline installation
Pipeline installation includes the construction
consideration of pipe laying, corrosion prevention,
anchoring, crack arresting, and hydrostatic testing and
line cleaning.
Four methods of CORROSION PREVENTION?
Anchoring to restrain the long flowlines in place so
that it may not snake due to longitudinal stress (caused
by internal pressure and temperature). Use pipeline
anchors.
Crack arresting to slow down crack propagation on the
pipe due to high tensile strength. Use crack arrestors
in the form of RINGS.
Hydrostatic test pressure test". To test the maximum
safe capacity of the pipeline. Line cleaning is the
process undertaken before and after the hydrostatic test.
Petroleum
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Corrosion Prevention
Four methods:
Pipe Material Selection
Injection of Corrosion Inhibitors
Cathodic Protection
External and Internal Protective Coating
Pipe material Selection
Use of corrosion-resistant material such as stainless
steel and special alloys.
Carbon steel is adequate for sweet, dry natural gas
Stress corrosion cracking may occur (due to water and
hydrogen sulphide and chlorides). Hence need to use
stress cracking resistant material
Petroleum
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Corrosion inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that passivate
steel surfaces and make them resistant to corrosion.
Generally, it is a mixture of organic amines.
For gas lines, inhibitors are injected in batches
(between pigs). For liquid lines, inhibitors are
injected continuously (to maintain the film on the
surface pipe wall).
Monitoring is required to ensure treatment efficiency.
Periodic pigging is also required to keep the pipe
wall clean and free of corrosion products.
Petroleum
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Protective coatings
External coatings. Examples: hot-applied bituminous
material wrapped with coverings, glass fiber fabric,
epoxy powder, PVC, and polyethylene. But due to
thermal instability of PVC and polyethylene, a popular
coating is a fusion-bonded epoxy coating.
Internal coatings. Polyurethane, phenolic resin and
phenolic epoxy, fusion-bonded epoxy powder. Some
materials such as amine adducts can even reduce pipe
roughness and flow pressure drop.
Petroleum
Internal
42
Pipeline Operation and Maintenance

After a pipeline is installed, efficient and safe
operation is a must for the business.
Automatic control must be provided to produce safe
operation in th advent of unexpected upsets. The standard
practice is the use of SCADA (supervisory control and data
acquisition).
Another important activities are pipeline PIGGING and leak
detection.
Petroleum
Internal
43
Review Questions
What is pigging?
What is the purpose of pigging?
What are the types of pig what we use?
Guess what is the advanced type of pig.
What is the advantage of this advanced type of pig?
(Refer to Francis Manning, Oilfield Processing of

Petroleum Volume One: Natural gas)
Petroleum
Internal
44

Crude Oil and Gas Transportation

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6.

Crude Oil and Gas

Measurement of Crude Oil

Pum p a m echanicaldevice that adds energy to a liquid for the

The prim ary function is to convert the rotary m otion of a prim e

Thus, w herever possible, it is advantageous to locate the facilities

Larg e p u m p s provide the pressure driving force necessary to m ove

Crude oilis stabilized by stage separation to or near atm ospheric

Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio of liquid

If a pump is 100% efficient, the mechanical horsepower

Lower efficiencies are due to energy losses caused by

Driver for pumps

Pum ps are classifi

In a kinetic pump, the kinetic or velocity energy of the

Radial flow pump

For a radial flow pump,

Positive Displacement Pump

Positive Displacement Pump

Advantages of Reciprocating pump:

Can run at much lower operating speeds than

Packed-plunger type liquid-end

Diaphragm type liquid-end

Agas compressoris a mechanical device that increases

Gas compressor is required for gas compression in all

Two major classification of gas compressor: Positive

Types of Gas Compressor

Compare the four popular types of compressors:

Measurement of Crude Oil and Gas

Crude Oil measurement

TURBINE OR PROPELLERTYPE METER

CORIOLIS MASS METER

Describe the different types of meters its mechanism

A LACT unit must perform 3 basic functions:

LACT metering skid

= Flow rate at base conditions on cu ft/hr

Pipeline and Tankers

Transportation of crude oil/natural gas

Pipeline design of crude oil pipeline

Pipeline design of natural gas pipeline

Pipeline Operation and Maintenance

(Refer to Francis Manning, Oilfield Processing of

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