Engineering Graphics VGEC Mech

Vishwakarma Government
Enginerring College,
Chandkheda-Ahmedabad
Mechanical Engineering Department
Dedicated To Beloved Students Of Engineering

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basic understanding and knowledge of the universal
language to the beginners of engineering students.
It provides an immense pleasure to faculties in
presenting this to B.E. as well as Diploma first year
students.
This presentation provides basic and thorough
understanding about engineering drawing topics
with the aids of multimedia and internet facility.
Engineering graphics is untouched by most of the
students while entering to the professional course, it
is difficult to understand.
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First year engineering students.
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faculties and inspiration provided by our loving
principal Prof. M. R. Patel
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engineering by net uploading related topics on the
net.
Engineering
Graphics
Dimensioning
Dimensioning
Components
DIMENSIONING COMPONENTS
Extension lines
Dimension lines
(with arrowheads)
Drawn with
4H pencil
Leader lines
Dimension figures
Notes :
- local note
- general note
Lettered with
2H pencil.
EXTENSION LINES
indicate the location on the objects features that are dimensioned.
DIMENSION LINES
indicate the direction and extent of a dimension, and inscribe dimension figures.
27
o
123
13
10
43
LEADER LINES
indicate details of the feature with a local note.
10
27
10 Drill, 2 Holes
o
123
13
R16
43
DIMENSION FIGURES : ORIENTATION

1. Aligned method
The dimension figures are placed so that they are readable from the
bottom and right side of the drawing.
2. Unidirectional method
The dimension figures are placed so that they can be read from the
bottom of the drawing.
Do not use both system on the same drawing or on the same series of
drawing (JIS Z8317)
EXAMPLE : Dimension
of length using aligned method.

30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
EXAMPLE : Dimension
of length using unidirectional method.

30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
EXAMPLE : Dimension
of angle using aligned method.

45o
45
o
o
45
45
o
45o
45o
45
45o
EXAMPLE : Dimension
of angle using unidirectional method.

45o
45o
45o
45o
45o
45o
45o
45o
Types of Dimensioning
Parallel Dimensioning
Parallel dimensioning consists of several
dimensions originating from one projection
line.
Superimposed Running Dimensions

Superimposed running dimensioning simplifies parallel
dimensions in order to reduce the space used on a drawing.
The common origin for the dimension lines is indicated by a
small circle at the intersection of the first dimension and the
projection line.
Chain Dimensioning
Combined Dimensions
A combined dimension uses both chain and parallel dimensioning.
PROBLEM :
To make 12 equal parts of circle.
PROBLEM :
To make 08 equal parts of circle.
4
5
4
8
9
10
2
11
12
7
8
PROBLEM : To make 12 equal parts of line.
0 1
0 1
10
11
12
9 10
11 12
SCALE
Drawing Scales
Length, size
Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element

of an object shown in the drawing to the real linear
dimension of the same element of the object.
Size in drawing
Actual size
Drawing Scales
Designation of a scale consists of the word SCALE
followed by the indication of its ratio, as follow
Reduce
SCALE 1:1
for full size
SCALE X:1
for enlargement scales
SCALE 1:X
for reduction scales
Full
Scales
Enlarge Scales
Scales
1:2
1:1
2:1
Full scales
FOR FULL SIZE SCALE
R.F.=1 OR ( 1:1 )
MEANS DRAWING & OBJECT ARE OF SAME SIZE.
Reduction scales
DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE
REDUCED TO ACCOMMODATE ON STANDARD
SIZE DRAWING SHEET.THIS REDUCTION
CREATES A SCALE OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO,
WHICH IS GENERALLY A FRACTION..
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING
SCALE
AND
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE
FACTOR IS LESS THAN UNITY.
Enlargement scale
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS
DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED FOR
ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS
CALLED ENLARGING SCALE.
HERE THE RATIO CALLED
REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE
THAN UNITY.
REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR
REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =
DIMENSION OF DRAWING
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
LENGTH OF DRAWING
ACTUAL LENGTH
LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F. MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.
BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 HECTOMETRE
= 10 DECAMETRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 METRES
1 METRE
= 10 DECIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE= 10 MILIMETRES
TYPES OF SCALES:
1.
PLAIN SCALES
( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)
2.
DIAGONAL SCALES
( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
PLAIN SCALE:- This type of scale represents two units or a unit and its sub-division.
Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure

maximum distance of 6 m. Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.
PROBLEM NO.:-
CONSTRUCTION:a) Calculate R.F.=
DIMENSION OF DRAWING
PLAIN SCALE
DIMENSION OF
OBJECT
R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100

Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 6000 mm
= 60 mm
b) Draw a line 60 mm long and divide it in 6 equal parts.
Each part will represent larger division unit.
4 M 6 DM
10
DECIMETERS
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
METERS
In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long.

Calculate the R.F. and construct a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers,
for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km (8km and 3hm) on it.
PROBLEM NO.:-
CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 450/ 36 . 1000 . 1000 = 1/ 80,000
Length of scale = R.F . max. distance
= 1/ 80000 12 km = 1/ 80000 12 1000 1000
= 150 mm
b) Draw a line 150 mm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will
represent larger division unit.
8KM 3HM
10
HECTOMETERS
R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS
10
11
KILOMETERS
PROBLEM NO. : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find its R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km
SOLUTION STEPS:
DIAGONAL
SCALE
RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000

Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 105 = 15 cm
Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9 th sub-division of horizontal scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and
complete diagonal scale.
569 km
459 km
336 km
KM
222 km
KM
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
100
50
100
200
300
R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.
400
500KM
PROBLEM NO.:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters

and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.
DIAGONAL
SCALE
SOLUTION STEPS:
R.F. = 1 / 2.5
Length of scale = 1 / 2.5 X 20 cm.
= 8 cm.
1.Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts.
(Each part will represent a length of 5 cm.)
2.Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1 cm.)
3.At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and
on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
4.Complete the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4 cm on it.
MM
13 .4 CM
CM
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 4 3 2 1 0
10
R.F. = 1 / 2.5
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING CENTIMETERS.
15
CENTIMETRES
Engineering
Curves
ENGINEERING CURVES
Part- I {Conic Sections}
ELLIPSE
PARABOLA
HYPERBOLA
CONIC SECTIONS
ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA ARE CALLED CONIC SECTIONS
BECAUSE
THESE CURVES APPEAR ON THE SURFACE OF A CONE
WHEN IT IS CUT BY SOME TYPICAL CUTTING PLANES.
OBSERVE
ILLUSTRATIONS
GIVEN BELOW..
Section Plane
Through Generators
Pa
rab
ola
Ellipse
Section Plane Parallel

to end generator.
Section Plane
Parallel to Axis.
Hyperbola
COMMON DEFINATION OF ELLIPSE, PARABOLA & HYPERBOL

These are the loci of points moving in a plane such that the ratio of its distances
from a fixed point And a fixed line always remains constant.
The Ratio is called ECCENTRICITY. (E)
A) For Ellipse
E<1
B) For Parabola E=1
C) For Hyperbola E>1
SECOND DEFINATION OF AN ELLIPSE:It is a locus of a point moving in a plane

such that the SUM of its distances from TWO fixed points
always remains constant.
{And this sum equals to the length of major axis.}
These TWO fixed points are FOCUS 1 & FOCUS 2
ELLIPSE
BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD
Problem :Draw ellipse by concentric circle method.

Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm long.
3
2
Steps:
1. Draw both axes as perpendicular bisectors
of each other & name their ends as shown.
2. Taking their intersecting point as a center,
draw two concentric circles considering both
as respective diameters.
3. Divide both circles in 12 equal parts &
name as shown.
4. From all points of outer circle draw vertical
lines downwards and upwards respectively.
5.From all points of inner circle draw
horizontal lines to intersect those vertical
lines.
6. Mark all intersecting points properly as
those are the points on ellipse.
7. Join all these points along with the ends of
both axes in smooth possible curve. It is
required ellipse.
4
C
1
2
5
4
B
10
10
6
9
8
D
7
8
Steps:
1 Draw a rectangle taking major
and minor axes as sides.
2. In this rectangle draw both
axes as perpendicular bisectors
of each other..
3. For construction, select upper
left part of rectangle. Divide
vertical small side and horizontal
long side into same number of
equal parts.( here divided in four
parts)
4. Name those as shown..
5. Now join all vertical points
1,2,3,4, to the upper end of minor
axis. And all horizontal points
i.e.1,2,3,4 to the lower end of
minor axis.
6. Then extend C-1 line upto D-1
and mark that point. Similarly
extend C-2, C-3, C-4 lines up to
D-2, D-3, & D-4 lines.
7. Mark all these points properly
and join all along with ends A
and D in smooth possible curve.
Do similar construction in right
side part.along with lower half of
the rectangle.Join all points in
smooth curve.
It is required ellipse.
ELLIPSE
BY RECTANGLE METHOD
Problem
Draw ellipse by Rectangle method.
Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm long.
Problem :Draw ellipse by Oblong method.

Draw a parallelogram of 100 mm and 70 mm long
sides with included angle of 750.Inscribe Ellipse in it.
ELLIPSE
BY OBLONG METHOD
STEPS ARE SIMILAR TO

THE PREVIOUS CASE
(RECTANGLE METHOD)
ONLY IN PLACE OF RECTANGLE,
HERE IS A PARALLELOGRAM.
D
4
3
2
2
1
ELLIPSE
PROBLEM .
MAJOR AXIS AB & MINOR AXIS CD ARE
100 AMD 70MM LONG RESPECTIVELY
.DRAW ELLIPSE BY ARCS OF CIRLES
METHOD.
STEPS:
1.Draw both axes as usual.Name the
ends & intersecting point
2.Taking AO distance I.e.half major
axis, from C, mark F1 & F2 On AB .
( focus 1 and 2.)
3.On line F1- O taking any distance,
mark points 1,2,3, & 4
4.Taking F1 center, with distance A-1
draw an arc above AB and taking F2
center, with B-1 distance cut this arc.
A
Name the point p1
5.Repeat this step with same centers but
taking now A-2 & B-2 distances for
drawing arcs. Name the point p2
6.Similarly get all other P points.
With same steps positions of P can be
located below AB.
7.Join all points by smooth curve to get
an ellipse/
BY ARCS OF CIRCLE METHOD

As per the definition Ellipse is locus of point P moving in
a plane such that the SUM of its distances from two fixed
points (F1 & F2) remains constant and equals to the length
of major axis AB.(Note A .1+ B .1=A . 2 + B. 2 = AB)
p4
p3
p2
p1
F1
B
F2
ELLIPSE
PROBLEM :- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE

SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF ITS DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT
AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 }
DIRECTRIX
ELLIPSE
45mm
30mm
STEPS:
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts.
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.
It is first point giving ratio of its
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc.
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an ELLIPSE.
(vertex) V
DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD
F ( focus)
PARABOLA
RECTANGLE METHOD
PROBLEM : A BALL THROWN IN AIR ATTAINS 100 M HIEGHT

AND COVERS HORIZONTAL DISTANCE 150 M ON GROUND.
Draw the path of the ball (projectile)-
STEPS:
1.Draw rectangle of above size and
divide it in two equal vertical parts
2.Consider left part for construction.
Divide height and length in equal
number of parts and name those
1,2,3,4,5& 6
3.Join vertical 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 to the
top center of rectangle
4.Similarly draw upward vertical
lines from horizontal1,2,3,4,5
And wherever these lines intersect
previously drawn inclined lines in
sequence Mark those points and
further join in smooth possible curve.
5.Repeat the construction on right side
rectangle also.Join all in sequence.
This locus is Parabola.
.
Draw
a
parabola
having
an
A cricket ball is thrown and
abscissa
(axis)
of
10m
and
the
reaches a maximum height of
double
ordinate
(base)
of
15m.
10m and falls on the ground at a
distances of 15m from the point
of projection. Determine the angle
of projection. Draw the path of
the cricket ball and name the
curve. Assume the point of
projection is on the ground level.
PARABOLA RECTANGLE METHOD

0
D
P
C
P
2
PARABOLA
4 P
3
P 4
5
P
6A 5
5
4
P
5 B6
Draw a parabola by tangent method given base 7.5m and axis 4.5m
Take scale 1cm = 0.5m
O
6
4.5m
4.5m
1
5
6
E
7.5m
PROBLEM:A stone is thrown from a building 6 m

high. It just crosses the top of a palm
tree 12 m high. Trace the path of the
projectile if the horizontal distance
between the building and the palm
tree is 3 m. Also find the distance of
the point from the building where the
stone falls on the ground.
6m
TOP OF TREE
BUILDING
6m
ROOT OF TREE
3m
REQD.DISTANCE
STONE FALLS HERE
TOP OF TREE
P
P1 P1
6m
1
2
BUILDING
P2
P2
P3
P3
3
P4
P4
3 2 1
1 2 3 4
B
5 6
6m
5
6 P5
STONE FALLS HERE
ROOT OF TREE
3m
3m
REQD.DISTANCE
E
P6
GROUND
PARABOLA
PROBLEM : Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB.

Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that
it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P and also the vertex.
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from
those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and
name it 1.
4.Take O-1 distance as radius and F as
center draw an arc
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name
upper point P1 and lower point P2.
(FP1=O1)
5.Similarly repeat this process by taking
again 5mm to right and left and locate
P3 P4 .
6.Join all these points in smooth curve.
It will be the locus of P equidistance
from line AB and fixed point F.
DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD
PARABOLA
P1
(VERTEX) V
1 2 3 4
P2
F
( focus)
HYPERBOLA
Problem No: Point P is 40 mm and 30 mm from horizontal

and vertical axes respectively.Draw Hyperbola through it.
THROUGH A POINT
OF KNOWN CO-ORDINATES
Solution Steps:
1) Extend horizontal
line from P to right side.
2) Extend vertical line
from P upward.
3) On horizontal line
from P, mark some points
taking any distance and
name them after P-1,
2,3,4 etc.
4) Join 1-2-3-4 points
to pole O. Let them cut
part [P-B] also at 1,2,3,4
points.
5) From horizontal
1,2,3,4 draw vertical
lines downwards and
6) From vertical 1,2,3,4
points [from P-B] draw
horizontal lines.
40 mm
7) Line from 1
horizontal and line from
1 vertical will meet at
P1.Similarly mark P2, P3,
P4 points.
8) Repeat the procedure
by marking four points
on upward vertical line
from P and joining all
those to pole O. Name
this points P6, P7, P8 etc.
and join them by smooth
P
1
2
3
O
30 mm
HYPERBOLA
P-V DIAGRAM
Problem no: A sample of gas is expanded in a cylinder

from 10 unit pressure to 1 unit pressure.Expansion follows
law PV=Constant.If initial volume being 1 unit, draw the
curve of expansion. Also Name the curve.
10
Form a table giving few more values of P & V
10
5
4
2.5
2
1
V = C
1 =
2 =
2.5 =
4 =
5 =
10 =
10
10
10
10
10
10
Now draw a Graph of

Pressure against Volume.
It is a PV Diagram and it is Hyperbola.
Take pressure on vertical axis and
Volume on horizontal axis.
7
6
PRESSURE
( Kg/cm2)
+++ +++ +
5
4
3
2
1
0
VOLUME:( M3 )
10
PROBLEM :- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE

SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF ITS DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT
AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 }
A
30mm
m
45m
STEPS:
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts.
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.
It is first point giving ratio of its
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc.
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an ELLIPSE.
(vertex)
F ( focus)
HYPERBOLA
DIRECTRIX
FOCUS METHOD
ELLIPSE
TANGENT & NORMAL
Problem :
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL

TO THE CURVE FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q )
1.
JOIN POINT Q TO F1 & F2
2.
BISECT ANGLE F1Q F2 THE ANGLE BISECTOR IS NORMAL
A PERPENDICULAR LINE DRAWN TO IT IS TANGENT TO THE CURVE.
3.
p4
p3
p2
p1
AL
F1
NOR
M
TAN
GE
NT
B
F2
ELLIPSE
TANGENT & NORMAL
Problem :
1.JOIN POINT Q TO F.
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH
THIS LINE AT POINT F
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX
AT T
4. JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS
TANGENT TO ELLIPSE FROM Q
5.TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE.
ELLIPSE
DIRECTRIX

TO THE CURVE
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q )
(vertex) V
F ( focus)
900
PARABOLA
TANGENT & NORMAL
Problem :
TO THE CURVE
PARABOLA
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH
THIS LINE AT POINT F
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX
AT T
TANGENT TO THE CURVE FROM Q
VERTEX V
900
F
( focus)
N
HYPERBOLA
TANGENT & NORMAL
Problem:
TO THE CURVE
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH THIS LINE AT
POINT F
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX AT T
TANGENT TO CURVE FROM Q
T
(vertex)
F ( focus)
900
N
B
T
ENGINEERING CURVES
Part-II
INVOLUTE
CYCLOID
SPIRAL
DEFINITIONS
CYCLOID:
IT IS A LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE

PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE WHICH
ROLLS ON A STRAIGHT LINE PATH.
INVOLUTE:
IT IS A LOCUS OF A FREE END OF A STRING

WHEN IT IS WOUND ROUND A CIRCULAR POLE
SPIRAL:
IT IS A CURVE GENERATED BY A POINT

WHICH REVOLVES AROUND A FIXED POINT
AND AT THE SAME MOVES TOWARDS IT.
INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
Problem no : Draw Involute of a circle.

String length is equal to the circumference of circle.
P2
P3
to
p
1t
o
2 to p
P1
4 to p
P4
5
op
6 to p
P5
5t
Solution Steps:
1) Point or end P of string AP is
exactly D distance away from
A. Means if this string is wound
round the circle, it will
completely cover given circle. B
will meet A after winding.
2) Divide D (AP) distance into
8 number of equal parts.
3)Divide circle also into 8
number of equal parts.
4)Name after A, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
up to 8 on D line AP as well as
on circle (in anticlockwise
direction).
5)To radius C-1, C-2, C-3 up to
C-8 draw tangents (from
1,2,3,4,etc to circle).
6)Take distance 1 to P in
compass and mark it on tangent
from point 1 on circle (means
one division less than distance
AP).
7)Name this point P1
8)Take 2-B distance in
compass and mark it on the
tangent from point 2. Name it
point P2.
9)Similarly take 3 to P, 4 to P,
5 to P up to 7 to P distance in
compass and mark on
respective tangents and locate
P3, P4, P5 up to P8 (i.e. A)
P6
7
to
1
A
8
P8
P7
4
D
String length MORE than D
Problem : Draw Involute of a circle.

String length is MORE than the circumference of circle.
Solution Steps:
In this case string length is more
than D.
But remember!
Whatever may be the length of
string, mark D distance
horizontal i.e.along the string
and divide it in 8 number of
equal parts, and not any other
distance. Rest all steps are same
as previous INVOLUTE. Draw
the curve completely.
P2
P3
to
p
1t
o
2 to p
P1
4 to p
op
5t
P5
6 to p
P4
8
to
P7
P6
p8 1
165 mm
(more than D)
D
Problem : Draw Involute of a circle.
String length is LESS than the circumference of circle.
String length LESS than D
Solution Steps:
In this case string length is Less
than D.
But remember!
Whatever may be the length of
string, mark D distance
horizontal i.e.along the string
and divide it in 8 number of
equal parts, and not any other
distance. Rest all steps are same
as previous INVOLUTE. Draw
the curve completely.
P2
P3
to
1t
o
2 to p
P1
4 to p
P4
5
o
P5
6 to p
5t
6
7
to
P6
7
P7
1
P
8
1
4
150 mm
(Less than D)
D
PROBLEM : A POLE IS OF A SHAPE OF HALF HEXABON AND SEMICIRCLE.

ASTRING IS TO BE WOUND HAVING LENGTH EQUAL TO THE POLE PERIMETER
DRAW PATH OF FREE END P OF STRING WHEN WOUND COMPLETELY.
INVOLUTE
OF
COMPOSIT SHAPED POLE
(Take hex 30 mm sides and semicircle of 60 mm diameter.)
P1
P
1 to P
P2
2
to
A to
P3
3 to P
3
2
5 to P
4t
oP
P4
P5
1
A
oP
6t
SOLUTION STEPS:
Draw pole shape as per
dimensions.
Divide semicircle in 4
parts and name those
along with corners of
hexagon.
Calculate perimeter
length.
Show it as string AP.
On this line mark 30mm
from A
Mark and name it 1
Mark D/2 distance on it
from 1
And dividing it in 4 parts
name 2,3,4,5.
Mark point 6 on line 30
mm from 5
Now draw tangents from
all points of pole
and proper lengths as
done in all previous
involutes problems and
complete the curve.
P6
3
D/2
PROBLEM:Draw an involute of a square

having side as 20 mm.
INVOLUTE OF A SQUARE
=2
R
1
0
P0
0
R=
3
01
P2
R=
01
P1
P3
P4
R=
4
0
1
PROBLEM:Draw an involute of a pentagon having

side as 20 mm.
INVOLUTE
OF A PENTAGON
R=3
01
R=201
R=
4
01
3
4
01
5
=
R
P5
N
P2
1
50
P0
P1
01
R=
Given :
Side of a Pentagon
P
P3
CYCLOID
PROBLEM : DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE

WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm
p6
p5
p7
p8
4 p4
8
C1
p3
p2
10
12 P
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11 p9 C12
3
p10
p1
11
C2
p11
p12
1
D
Solution Steps:
1) From center C draw a horizontal line equal to D distance.
2) Divide D distance into 12 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3__ etc.
3) Divide the circle also into 12 number of equal parts and in clock wise direction, after P name 1, 2, 3
up to 12.
4) From all these points on circle draw horizontal lines. (parallel to locus of C)
5) With a fixed distance C-P in compass, C1 as center, mark a point on horizontal line from 1. Name it
P.
6) Repeat this procedure from C2, C3, C4 upto C12 as centers. Mark points P2, P3, P4, P5 up to P8 on
the
horizontal lines drawn from 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 respectively.

WHICH ROLLS ON A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of rolling Circle 50 mm
EPI CYCLOID :
And radius of directing circle i.e. curved path, 75 mm.
Generating/
Rolling Circle
C1
6
C7
Directing Circle
C4
5
7
1
C3
r = CP
C2
C6
= r 3600
R
Solution Steps:
1)When smaller circle will roll on
larger circle for one revolution it
will cover D distance on arc and
it will be decided by included arc
angle .
2)Calculate by formula = (r/R)
x 3600.
3)Construct angle with radius
OC and draw an arc by taking O as
center OC as radius and form
sector of angle .
4)Divide this sector into 8
number of equal angular parts.
And from C onward name them
C1, C2, C3 up to C8.
5)Divide smaller circle
(Generating circle) also in 8
number of equal parts. And next
to P in clockwise direction name
those 1, 2, 3, up to 8.
6)With O as center, O-1 as radius
draw an arc in the sector. Take O2, O-3, O-4, O-5 up to O-8
distances with center O, draw all
concentric arcs in sector. Take
fixed distance C-P in compass, C1
center, cut arc of 1 at P1.
Repeat procedure and locate P2,
c9
c8
c10
c11
c7
c12
c6
c5
10
12
c4
5
c3
4
3
c2
c1
5
12
P
11
7
8
10
9
OP=Radius of directing circle=75mm

PC=Radius of generating circle=25mm
=r/R X360= 25/75 X360=120
11

WHICH ROLLS FROM THE INSIDE OF A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of
HYPO CYCLOID
rolling circle 50 mm and radius of directing circle (curved path) 75 mm.
P1
6
P2
C2
C1
P3
C3
C4
P4
P5
P6
C8
r 3600
R
Solution Steps:
1)Smaller circle is
rolling here, inside the
larger circle. It has to
rotate anticlockwise to
move ahead.
2)Same steps should
be taken as in case of
EPI CYCLOID. Only
change is in numbering
direction of 8 number
of equal parts on the
smaller circle.
3)From next to P in
anticlockwise direction,
name 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8.
4)Further all steps are
that of epi cycloid.
This is called
HYPO CYCLOID.
OC = R ( Radius of Directing Circle)

CP = r (Radius of Generating Circle)
P7
P8
10
11
12
6
5
4
c5
c6
c7
c8
c9
c10
c11
c4
2
2
c3
c2
1
c1
12
P
11
10
8
9
OP=Radius of directing circle=75mm

PC=Radius of generating circle=25mm
=r/R X360= 25/75 X360=120
c12
Problem :
Show by means of drawing that
when the diameter of rolling circle
is half the diameter of directing
circle, the hypocycloid is a straight
line
Directing Circle
Rolling Circle
2
1
1
2
C6 C7
C
5
C4
C8
4
C9
C3
C2
C1
P2
P1 P3
5
6
P6 O
P4 C P5
11
1
C10
C11
P7
P11
C12
P9 P10
P8
P12
HYPOCYCLOID
Problem : Draw a spiral of one convolution. Take distance PO 40 mm.
SPIRAL
IMPORTANT APPROACH FOR CONSTRUCTION!

FIND TOTAL ANGULAR AND TOTAL LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
AND DIVIDE BOTH IN TO SAME NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS.
2
Solution Steps
1. With PO radius draw a circle
and divide it in EIGHT parts.
Name those 1,2,3,4, etc. up to 8
2 .Similarly divided line PO also in
EIGHT parts and name those
1,2,3,-- as shown.
3. Take o-1 distance from op line
and draw an arc up to O1 radius
vector. Name the point P1
4. Similarly mark points P2, P3, P4
up to P8
And join those in a smooth curve.
It is a SPIRAL of one convolution.
P2
P1
P3
P4
P5
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
P7
P6
SPIRAL
of
two convolutions
Problem
Point P is 80 mm from point O. It starts moving towards O and reaches it in two
revolutions around.it Draw locus of point P (To draw a Spiral of TWO convolutions).
IMPORTANT APPROACH FOR CONSTRUCTION!
FIND TOTAL ANGULAR AND TOTAL LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
AND DIVIDE BOTH IN TO SAME NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS.
2,10
P2
P1
3,11
SOLUTION STEPS:
Total angular displacement here
is two revolutions And
Total Linear displacement here
is distance PO.
Just divide both in same parts i.e.
Circle in EIGHT parts.
( means total angular displacement
in SIXTEEN parts)
Divide PO also in SIXTEEN parts.
Rest steps are similar to the previous
problem.
1,9
P3
P10
P9
P11
4,12
P4
16
10
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 P
P8
P12
8,16
P15
P13
P14
P7
P5
5,13
13
P6
6,14
7,15
Involute
Method of Drawing
Tangent & Normal
STEPS:
DRAW INVOLUTE AS USUAL.
MARK POINT Q ON IT AS DIRECTED.
No
rm
al
JOIN Q TO THE CENTER OF CIRCLE C.

CONSIDERING CQ DIAMETER, DRAW
A SEMICIRCLE AS SHOWN.
MARK POINT OF INTERSECTION OF
THIS SEMICIRCLE AND POLE CIRCLE
AND JOIN IT TO Q.
THIS WILL BE NORMAL TO INVOLUTE.
Ta
ng
DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE TO

THIS LINE FROM Q.
en
IT WILL BE TANGENT TO INVOLUTE.
6
7
1
8
P8
P
8
STEPS:
DRAW CYCLOID AS USUAL.
MARK POINT Q ON IT AS DIRECTED.
CYCLOID
Method of Drawing
Tangent & Normal
WITH CP DISTANCE, FROM Q. CUT THE

POINT ON LOCUS OF C AND JOIN IT TO Q.
FROM THIS POINT DROP A PERPENDICULAR
ON GROUND LINE AND NAME IT N
JOIN N WITH Q.THIS WILL BE NORMAL TO
CYCLOID.
No r m
al
DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE TO

THIS LINE FROM Q.
IT WILL BE TANGENT TO CYCLOID.
CYCLOID
CP
Tang
en
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
N
D
C6
C7
C8
Spiral.
Method of Drawing
Tangent & Normal
SPIRAL (ONE CONVOLUSION.)

2
No
al
rm
P2
t
en
g
n
Ta
P1
Constant of the Curve =
P3
=
P4
P5
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
P7
P6
Difference in length of any radius vectors

Angle between the corresponding
radius vector in radian.
OP OP2
/2
OP OP2
1.57
= 3.185 m.m.
STEPS:
*DRAW SPIRAL AS USUAL.
DRAW A SMALL CIRCLE OF RADIUS EQUAL TO THE
CONSTANT OF CURVE CALCULATED ABOVE.
* LOCATE POINT Q AS DISCRIBED IN PROBLEM AND
THROUGH IT DRAW A TANGENTTO THIS SMALLER
CIRCLE.THIS IS A NORMAL TO THE SPIRAL.
*DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE
*TO THIS LINE FROM Q.
IT WILL BE TANGENT TO CYCLOID.
Loci of Points
LOCUS
It is a path traced out by a point moving in a plane,

in a particular manner, for one cycle of operation.
The cases are classified in THREE categories for easy understanding.
A} Basic Locus Cases.

B} Oscillating Link
C} Rotating Link
Basic Locus Cases:
Here some geometrical objects like point, line, circle will be described with there relative
Positions. Then one point will be allowed to move in a plane maintaining specific relation
with above objects. And studying situation carefully you will be asked to draw its locus.
Oscillating & Rotating Link:

Here a link oscillating from one end or rotating around its center will be described.
Then a point will be allowed to slide along the link in specific manner. And now studying
the situation carefully you will be asked to draw its locus.
Problem No.:
A Link OA, 80 mm long oscillates around O,
600 to right side and returns to its initial vertical
Position with uniform velocity.Mean while point
P initially on O starts sliding downwards and
reaches end A with uniform velocity.
Draw locus of point P
Solution Steps:
OSCILLATING LINK
Point P- Reaches End A (Downwards)

1) Divide OA in EIGHT equal parts and from O to A after O
name 1, 2, 3, 4 up to 8. (i.e. up to point A).
2) Divide 600 angle into four parts (150 each) and mark each
point by A1, A2, A3, A4 and for return A5, A6, A7 andA8.
(Initial A point).
3) Take center O, distance in compass O-1 draw an arc upto
OA1. Name this point as P1.
1) Similarly O center O-2 distance mark P2 on line O-A2.
2) This way locate P3, P4, P5, P6, P7 and P8 and join them.
( It will be thw desired locus of P )
p1
p2
p3
p4
p5
A4
4
5
p6
A3
6
7
A8
p8
A8
p7
A1
A7
A2
A6
A5
OSCILLATING LINK
Problem No :
A Link OA, 80 mm long oscillates around O,
600 to right side, 1200 to left and returns to its initial
vertical Position with uniform velocity.Mean while point
P initially on O starts sliding downwards, reaches end A
and returns to O again with uniform velocity.
Draw locus of point P
Op
16
15
14
Solution Steps:
( P reaches A i.e. moving downwards.
& returns to O again i.e.moves upwards )
1.Here distance traveled by point P is PA.plus A
12
AP.Hence divide it into eight equal parts.( so
total linear displacement gets divided in 16
parts) Name those as shown.
2.Link OA goes 600 to right, comes back to
A
A13 11
original (Vertical) position, goes 600 to left and
returns to original vertical position. Hence
total angular displacement is 2400.
Divide this also in 16 parts. (150 each.)
Name as per previous problem.(A, A1 A2 etc)
3.Mark different positions of P as per the
procedure adopted in previous case.
and complete the problem.
13
p1
p2
p3
p4
p5
3
12
A4
4
11
10
A10
A14
A3
9 7
A9
A15
p6
A p8
A8
A16
p7
A1
A7
A2
A6
A5
ROTATING LINK
Problem :
Rod AB, 100 mm long, revolves in clockwise direction for one revolution.
Meanwhile point P, initially on A starts moving towards B and reaches B.
Draw locus of point P.
1)AB Rod revolves around
center O for one revolution
and point P slides along AB
rod and reaches end B in
one revolution.
2)Divide circle in 8 number
of equal parts and name in
arrow direction after A-A1,
A2, A3, up to A8.
3)Distance traveled by
point P is AB mm. Divide
this also into 8 number of
equal parts.
4)Initially P is on end A.
When A moves to A1, point
P goes one linear division
(part) away from A1. Mark it
from A1 and name the point
P1.
5)When A moves to A2, P
will be two parts away from
A2 (Name it P2 ). Mark it as
above from A2.
6)From A3 mark P3 three
parts away from P3.
7)Similarly locate P4, P5,
P6, P7 and P8 which will be
eight parts away from A8.
[Means P has reached B].
8)Join all P points by
A2
A1
A3
p1
p2
p6
p5
A
P
p7
p3
p4
A7
A5
A6
p8
B A4
OC is the Crank of 30mm long rotates in anti clockwise direction. Connecting link CP,
120mm long slides over a fixed cylinder of diameter of 40mm. The distance between
the center of rotation of crank and the center of fixed cylinder is 100mm. Draw the
locus of point P and a point Q of a link CQ of 25 mm extended from point C.
Solid
cylinder
Orthographic
Projections
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
{ MACHINE ELEMENTS }
OBJECT IS OBSERVED IN THREE DIRECTIONS.
THE DIRECTIONS SHOULD BE NORMAL
TO THE RESPECTIVE PLANES.
AND NOW PROJECT THREE DIFFERENT VIEWS ON THOSE PLANES.
THESE VEWS ARE FRONT VIEW , TOP VIEW AND SIDE VIEW.
FRONT VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON VERTICAL PLANE ( VP )
TOP VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON HORIZONTAL PLANE ( HP )
SIDE VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON PROFILE PLANE ( PP )
FIRST STUDY THE CONCEPT OF 1ST AND 3RD ANGLE

PROJECTION METHODS
PROJECTION SYSTEMS
1.
First angle system

- European country
- ISO standard
2.
First Quadrant
Third angle system

- Canada, USA,
Japan, Thailand
Third
Quadrant
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
1st angle system
3rd angle system
ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
1 angle system
st
3rd angle system
Folding
line
Folding
line
Folding
line
Folding
line
ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS
3rd angle system
1st angle system
Right Side View
Front View
Top View
Top View
Front View Right Side View
PROJECTION SYMBOLS
First angle
system
Third angle
system
SYMBOLS USED ON
ENGINEERING DRAWING SHEET
FIRST ANGLE METHOD THIRD ANGLE METHOD
OF
OF
ORTHOGRAPHIC
ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS
PROJECTIONS
M/c. PARTS ARE NEVER ASSUMED IN SECOND

OR IN FOURTH QUADRANT, AS THE VIEWS MAY
OVERLAP ON ONE ANOTHER ABOVE XY OR
BELOW XY RESPECTIVELY.
Step by step procedure Suggested

to
prepare
Orthographic
views
(First angle method) for The simple

component
Shown
pictorially in
figure
Video
40 SQ
30,Depth 10
25 SQ
30
10
15 SQ
35
10
5
35
ISOMETRIC
ORTHO. VIEWS
45
15
40
10
30
F.V.
10
R.H.
S.V.
35
45
40
15
25 Sq
10
40 Sq
35
5
30
15 Sq
T.V.
Exercise : Figure shows the isometric

view of a vertical shaft support.
Draw its all the three views,
using first angle method of
projections.
Give the necessary dimensions
as per aligned system.
64
ISOMETRIC
VIEW
50
24
40
10
25
20
48
0
4
1
40
50
24
64
10
30
140
L.H.S.V
14
48
14
FRONT VIEW
70
TOP VIEW
Sectional
Orthographic
Projection
14
14
SOLUTION`
30
14
(3) L.H.S.V
8
TOP VIEW
2
0
8
30
36
R3
5
R3
5
A
Approx.25
70
Aim:-Sketch-1, shows Isometric View of a

machine part. Draw its following
orthographic views using third angle
method of projections, giving
dimensions.
(1) Sectional F.V.-AA
(2) T.V.
20
14
14
65
2 HOLES,
14
100
3
6
65
34
14
14
`
14
10
0
70
Sketch-1
A
LEFT HAND SIDE VIEW
100
SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW AA
SCALE:- 1:1
SYMBOL OF PROJECTION METHOD, NOT SHOWN
A
14
30
TOP VIEW
2
0
8
36
14
R3
5
R3
5
A
Approx.25
(3) L.H.S.V
14
14
SOLUTION`
70
Aim:-Sketch-1, shows Isometric View of a

machine part. Draw its following
orthographic views using third angle
method of projections, giving dimensions.
(1) Sectional F.V.-AA
(2) T.V.
20
100
3
6
2 HOLES,
14
14
65
34
A
LEFT HAND SIDE VIEW
Hatch (section) lines, to be kept at 1 to 1.5 mm apart,

at 45 normally, but depends on areas to be hatched.
100
SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW AA
SCALE:- 1:1
SYMBOL OF PROJECTION METHOD, NOT SHOWN
60
50
40,DEPTH 24
14
48
14
10
30
70
40
50
24
64
10
30
140
L.H.S.V
14
48
14
FRONT VIEW
70
TOP VIEW
POSITION: 1 (I Qua.)
POINT Above H.P.
In Front Of V.P.
A1- Point
. a1- F.V.
P
.
V
a
T.V.
1
Y
.a1
.A1 Y
(3D)
Video
CONCLUSIONS:
In 2D
In 3D
Point, Above
F.V.
H.P.
Above XY
T.V.
X
Point, InFront Of V.P. Below XY
.a
.
P
H.
.a
.a
(2D)
A2- Point
a2- F.V.
a2 - T.V.
.
P
.
V
POSITION:2 (II Qua.)

POINT
Above H.P.
Behind V.P.
Video
CONCLUSIONS:
In 2D
In 3D
A2
a 2
P. .
.
H a2
Point, Above
F.V.
H.P.
Above XY
T.V.
Point,
Behind V.P. Above XY
X
Y
(3D)
.a
.a
2
X
(2D)
Y
A3- Point
a
F.V.
3
Y
a3- T.V.
(3D)
a.3
Y
POSITION: 3 (III Qua.)

POINT
Below H.P.
Behind V.P.
X
.
A
CONCLUSIONS:
In 2D
In 3D
.a
Point, Below
F.V.
H.P.
Below XY
T.V.
Point Behind
Above XY
V.P.
.a
X
3
.a
3
Y
(2D)
A4- Point
a4- F.V.
Y
Y a4- T.V.
POSITION: 4 (IV Qua.)
POINT
Below H.P.
X
In Front of V.P.
Video
CONCLUSIONS:
In 2D
In 3D
Point, Below
F.V.
H.P.
Below XY
T.V.
Point, In
Front Of V.P. Below XY
a4
a. 4
A4
X
.a
.a
(3D)
X
Y
4
4
(2D)
POSITION: 5
Y
POINT
Above H.P.
In V.P.
CONCLUSIONS:
In 3D
In 2D
.
P
.
V
.
.
P A5 a5
.
H
.
X
Point, Above
F.V.
H.P.
Above XY
Point,
In V.P.
a5
A5- Point
a5- F.V.
a5 - T.V.
Y (3D)
.
P
H.
A5 .a5
T.V.
On XY
X
.a5
(2D)
Y
A6- Point
a6- F.V.
a6- T.V.
Y
POSITION: 6
Y
POINT
Below H.P.
In V.P.
Point In V.P.
T.V.
On XY
A6.a6
CONCLUSIONS:
In 2D
In 3D
Point, Below
F.V.
H.P.
Below XY
.a
X (3D)
a6
A .a
6
Y
(2D)
A7 Point
POSITION: 7
a7- F.V.
a7 - T.V.
POINT
In H.P.
In Front of V.P.
CONCLUSIONS:
In 2D
In 3D
T.V.
Point, InFront Of V.P. Below XY
Point In H.P.
F.V.
On XY
a7
(3D)
a
.
A
X
X
a7
A7 . a7
Y
(2D)
A8- Point
a8- F.V.
a8 - T.V.
POSITION: 8
Y
POINT
In H.P.
Behind V.P.
CONCLUSIONS:
In 2D
In 3D
T.V.
Point,
Behind V.P. Above XY
Point, In
H.P.
F.V.
On XY
a
.
A
8
a8
X
A8 . a8
X
a8
Y
X
(3D)
(2D)
Y
POSITION: 9
POINT
A
Point
9
.
P
.
V a9- F.V.
a9 - T.V.
In H.P
In V.P.
CONCLUSIONS:
In 3D
In 2D
Point, In
H.P.
F.V.
On XY
T.V.
On XY
Point,
In V.P.
a9
.
A9 a9
(3D)
.
P
H.
X
X A9.a9
a9
Y
(2D)
Projections of
Planes
A square ABCD of 50 mm side has its corner A in the H.P., its diagonal AC inclined at 30 to
the H.P. and the diagonal BD inclined at 45 to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its
projections.
Keep AC parallel to the H.P.
& BD perpendicular to V.P.
(considering inclination of
AC as inclination of the
plane)
Incline AC at 30 to the H.P.

i.e. incline the edge view
(FV) at 30 to the HP
c1
c
b
d
b
d
45
b1
45 a1
b1
c1
c1
a1
a1
50
d
d1
30
b1
Incline BD at 45 to the V.P.
d1
d1
Read problem and answer following questions

1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------HP
2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to HP
3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
4. Which side will be vertical? ---One small side.
Hence begin with TV, draw rectangle below X-Y
drawing one small side vertical.
Problem :
Rectangle 30mm and 50mm
sides is resting on HP on one
small side which is 300 inclined
to VP,while the surface of the
plane makes 450 inclination with
HP. Draw its projections.
Surface // to Hp
Surface inclined to Hp
c1
dc
ab
cd
a b 450
X
d
a1
d1
b1
c1
300
a1
b1
Y
Side
Inclined
to Vp
d1
b1
a1
d1
c1
A thin rectangular plate of sides 60 mm X 30 mm has its shorter side in the V.P. and inclined
at 30 to the H.P. Project its top view if its front view is a square of 30 mm long sides
A rectangle can be seen as a

square in the F.V. only when its
surface is inclined to VP. So for
the first view keep the plane //
to VP & shorter edge to HP
F.V. (square) is drawn first
Incline a1b1 at 30 to the

H.P.
c1
60
c
b1
c1
d1
30
b1
a
a
b
c
d
d1
a1
a1
a1 30
b1
a
b
60
c
d
c1
d1
Problem :
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is

resting on HP on one of its sides with its
surface 450 inclined to HP.
Draw its projections when the side in HP
makes 300 angle with VP
1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP

2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
4. Which side will be vertical? -------- any side.
Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
SURFACE AND SIDE INCLINATIONS

ARE DIRECTLY GIVEN.
ce
X
b a
ce
450
a1
e1
e1
a1
b1 Y
a1
300
b1
d1
d1
b1
c
c1
e1
b a
d1
c1
c1
A regular hexagon of 40mm side has a corner in the HP. Its surface inclined at45 to the
HP and the top view of the diagonal through the corner which is in the HP makes an angle
of 60 with the VP. Draw its projections.
Plane inclined to HP
at 45and to VP
Plane parallel to HP
Top view of the diagonal

making 60 with the VP.
d1
c
e
b
f
c
e
e1
f
b
c1
b1
f 1
45
60
f
f1
a1
f1
a1
e1
e1
b1
a
d1
a1
c1
b
b1
c1
d1
Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25mm sides, having one of its side in
the H.P. and inclined at 60 to the V.P. and its surface making an angle of 45 with the
H.P.
Plane inclined to HP
at 45and to VP
Plane parallel to HP
f
c
a b
c f
de
b
a
e
d
45
a1
f1
b1
d1
d1
Y
e1
c1
f1
e1
a1
a1
d1
b1
60
c1
b1
c1
e1
f1
Side on the H.P. making 60

with the VP.
A circular plate of negligible thickness and 50 mm diameter appears as an ellipse in the front
view, having its major axis 50 mm long and minor axis 30 mm long. Draw its top view when
the major axis of the ellipse is horizontal.
71
11
8 121
11
91
111
10
81
101
111
12
61
51
71
61
81
21
121
30
11
21
2,
12
6, 7
8
41
101
10
5,
9
4,
4,
10
11
2, 3,
12 11
31
111
3,
91
51
11
41
21
31
121
31
50
Incline the F.V. till the major

axis becomes horizontal
41
Incline the T.V. till the

distance between the end
projectors is 30 mm
101
A circle can be seen as a

ellipse in the F.V. only when its
surface is inclined to VP. So for
the first view keep the plane //
to VP.
51
5,
91
9
6,
8
81
61
Draw projections of a rhombus having diagonals 125 mm and 50 mm long, the smaller
diagonal of which is parallel to both the principal planes, while the other is inclined at 30 to
the H.P.
Keep AC parallel to the H.P.
& BD perpendicular to V.P.
(considering inclination of
AC as inclination of the
plane)
Make BD parallel to XY
c1
b
d
d1
30
125
c
d
c1
a1
a1
50
b1
b1
a1
c1
b1
d1
d1
b
d
Incline AC at 30 to the H.P.
Exercise :
A 30- 60 set square has its
shortest side 40mm long and is in
the H.P. The top view of the set
square is an isosceles triangle
and the hypotenuse of the set
square is inclined at an angle of
45 with the V.P.
Draw the
projections of the set square and
find its inclination with the H.P.
Data:-
Answer:-
(1) = 55
(1) T.L.(AB)=40mm
(2) =45
R=T.
L.
c1
c a1,b1
a1
Scale:-1:1
b1
b2
a2
a2
40
c1
b2
T.
L.
.
P.L
30
40
T.L
60
.
L.
P.
40
a,b
X
a
Locus of c
c2
c2
Locus of c
Problem : A circle of 50 mm diameter is

resting on Hp on end A of its diameter AC
which is 300 inclined to Hp while its Tv
is 450 inclined to Vp.Draw its projections.
b d
d1 Y
c1

4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------AC
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below
X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y
b1
The difference in these two problems is in step 3 only.

In problem no.8 inclination of Tv of that AC is
given,It could be drawn directly as shown in 3rd step.
While in no.9 angle of AC itself i.e. its TL, is
given. Hence here angle of TL is taken,locus of c 1
Is drawn and then LTV I.e. a1 c1 is marked and
final TV was completed.Study illustration carefully.
b d
d
Note the difference in

construction of 3rd step
in both solutions.
450
d1
ca
c1
b1
a1
300
d
a
Problem : A circle of 50 mm diameter is

resting on Hp on end A of its diameter AC
which is 300 inclined to Hp while it makes
450 inclined to Vp. Draw its projections.
d
b
d
b
d1
d1
d
a1
a
300
ca
TL
c1
c1
b1
b1
Problem : End A of diameter AB of a circle is in HP

A nd end B is in VP.Diameter AB, 50 mm long is
300 & 600 inclined to HP & VP respectively.
Draw projections of circle.

4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------AB
Hence begin with TV,draw CIRCLE below
X-Y line, taking DIA. AB // to X-Y
The problem is similar to previous problem of circle no.9.

But in the 3rd step there is one more change.
Like 9th problem True Length inclination of dia.AB is definitely expected
but if you carefully note - the the SUM of its inclinations with HP & VP is 90 0.
Means Line AB lies in a Profile Plane.
Hence its both Tv & Fv must arrive on one single projector.
So do the construction accordingly AND
note the case carefully..
300
Y
600
TL
SOLVE SEPARATELY
ON DRAWING SHEET
GIVING NAMES TO VARIOUS
POINTS AS USUAL,
AS THE CASE IS IMPORTANT
Problem :
A hexagonal lamina has its one side in HP and
Its apposite parallel side is 25mm above Hp and
In Vp. Draw its projections.
Take side of hexagon 30 mm long.

4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------AC
ONLY CHANGE is the manner in which surface inclination
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below
is described:
X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y
One side on Hp & its opposite side 25 mm above Hp.
Hence redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above arrangement.
Keep ab on xy & de 25 mm above xy.
25
X a b
c f
de
b
a
e
d
f
c
e1
f1
a1
e1
f1
a1
c1
e1
d
c
b1
d1
c1
b1
d1
f1
c1
a1
d1
b1
As 3rd step
redraw 2nd Tv keeping
side DE on xy line.
Because it is in VP
as said in problem.
A semicircular plate of 80mm diameter has its straight edge in the VP and inclined at 45 to
HP.The surface of the plate makes an angle of 30 with the VP. Draw its projections.
Plane inclined at 30 to the V.P.
and straight edge in the H.P.
Plane in the V.P. with

straight edge to H.P
11
11
St.edge in V.P. and

inclined at 45 to the H.P.
21
21
31
31
41
41
1
7
2
6
61
71
3 4
5
45
51
61
51
71
80
11
71
30
1
6
21
61
3
4
51
41
31

4. Which side will be vertical? --------any side.
Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
Problem :
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is resting
on HP on one of its sides while its opposite
vertex (corner) is 30 mm above HP.
Draw projections when side in HP is 300
inclined to VP.
SURFACE INCLINATION INDIRECTLY GIVEN
SIDE INCLINATION DIRECTLY GIVEN:
ONLY CHANGE is
the manner in which surface inclination is described:
One side on Hp & its opposite corner 30 mm above Hp.
Hence redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above arrangement.
Keep ab on xy & d 30 mm above xy.
b a
ce
ce
30
300
e1
a1
a1
b1
d1
d1
b1
c
b1 Y
a1
e1
c1
e1
a
b
d1
c1
c1
FREELY SUSPENDED CASES.

Problem :
An isosceles triangle of 40 mm long
base side, 60 mm long altitude Is
freely suspended from one corner of
Base side.Its plane is 450 inclined to
Vp. Draw its projections.
IMPORTANT POINTS
1.In this case the plane of the figure always remains perpendicular to Hp.
2.It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
3.Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
4.Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended position as FV.
(Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig. vertica
5.Always begin with FV as a True Shape but in a suspended position.
AS shown in 1st FV.
a1
a
C
b
b1
g1
H
G
c1
c
X
H/3
First draw a given triangle

With given dimensions,
Locate its centroid position
And
join it with point of suspension.
a,g
a,
450
Similarly solve next problem

of Semi-circle
Projections of
Solids
Video
SOLIDS
To understand and remember various solids in this subject properly,

those are classified & arranged in to two major groups.
Group A
Group B
Solids having top and base of same shape
Solids having base of some shape

and just a point as a top, called
apex.
Cylinder
Cone
Prisms
Triangular
Cube
Square
( A solid having
six square faces)
Pentagonal Hexagonal
Pyramids
Triangular
Square
Tetrahedron
( A solid having
Four triangular faces)
Pentagonal Hexagonal
SOLIDS
Dimensional parameters of different solids.
Square Prism
Corner of
base
Cylinder
Slant
Edge
Base
Edge
of
Base
Base
Edge
of
Base
Cone
Apex
Apex
Top
Rectangular
Face
Longer
Edge
Square Pyramid
Triangular
Base
Face
Corner of
base
Sections of solids( top & base not parallel)
Base
Generators
Imaginary lines
generating curved surface
of cylinder & cone.
Frustum of cone & pyramids.

( top & base parallel to each other)
Exercise :
A regular pentagonal prism of
25mm long edges and axis
70mm long rests on HP on one
of its corner of the base. The
slant edge passing through
corner makes 45 with HP and
the side opposite to the same
corner makes 30 with VP.
Draw its projections.
2
1
3
5
a1
b 1
a
X b
1a
2
22
11
21 51
31 4
1
e
c d
5
e
a1
d 4
b1
c
3
e1
c1
=45
e1
11
d1
21
c1
32
b2
d1
12
52
42
a2
e2
c2
d2
a
2
= 30
b2
51
41
31
c2
e2
12
22 d2
32
52
42
2
1
3
5
a1
b 1
a
X b
1a
2
22
11
21 51
31 4
1
e
c d
5
e
a1
d 4
b1
c
3
e1
c1
=45
e1
11
d1
21
c1
32
b2
d1
12
52
42
a2
e2
c2
d2
a
2
= 30
b2
51
41
31
c2
e2
12
22 d2
32
52
42
Exercise :
A regular hexagonal prism of
30mm sides and axis 80mm
long is resting on HP on one
of its corners of the base. The
axis makes 30 with HP and
plan of the axis makes 45
with
the
VP.
Draw
its
projections.
26 3 5
1
4
a
X
b f
f
6
a1
2
b
11
61
21
51
31 4
a1 f1
b1
e1
c1 d
d
1
22
b2
a2
c2
12
32
f2
e2
d2
62
52
42
c e
f2
45
61 5
e
f1 e1
a
2
e
1
2
5
4 d a1
d1 1 1
41 b2
62
d2
3
c2
12
52
b
c
21 31
1 c1
22
42
32
Problem .
A square pyramid, 40
mm base sides and axis 60 mm long,
has a triangular face on the ground
and the vertical plane containing the
axis makes an angle of 450 with the
VP. Draw its projections. Take apex
nearer to VP
Solution Steps :
Triangular face on Hp , means it is lying on Hp:
1.Assume it standing on Hp.
2.Its Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
3.Draw square of 40mm sides with one side vertical Tv &
taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
5.Draw 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.ocd face on xy. And project its Tv.
6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
( Vp containing axis ic the center line of 2 nd Tv.Make it 450 to xy as
shown take apex near to xy, as it is nearer to Vp) & project final Fv.
o
ab
cd
d1
a1
For dark and dotted lines
c1
c1
d1
a1
o1
o1
d
o1 1
d1
b1
1.Draw proper outline of new view DARK. 2. Decide direction of an observer.

3. Select nearest point to observer and draw all lines starting from it-dark.
4. Select farthest point to observer and draw all lines (remaining)from it- dotted.
Y
a1
cd
X ab
b1
a1
c1
b 1(APEX
c1
NEARER
TO V.P).
(APEX
AWAY
FROM V.P.)
Solution Steps:
Resting on Hp on one generator, means lying on Hp:
1.Assume it standing on Hp.
2.Its Tv will show True Shape of base( circle )
3.Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Tv &
taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
5.Draw 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.oe on xy. And
project its Tv below xy.
6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted,
as per the procedure.
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
( generator o1e1 300 to xy as shown) & project final Fv.
Problem :
A cone 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis
is resting on one generator on Hp
which makes 300 inclination with Vp
For dark and dotted lines
1.Draw proper outline of new vie
DARK.
2. Decide direction of an observer.
3. Select nearest point to observer
and draw all lines starting from
it-dark.
4. Select farthest point to observer
and draw all lines (remaining)
from it- dotted.
a
hb
c
g
h1
a hb
c g
f d e
o
g1
f1
f1
e1
g1
h1
e e1
b
d
c
a1
b1
d1
c1
b1
c
d1 1
o1
a1
b1
e1
d1
o1
30
o1
h1
f1
a1
g1
c1
Problem A right circular cone,

40 mm base diameter and 60 mm
long axis is resting on Hp on one
point of base circle such that its
axis makes 450 inclination with
Hp and 400 inclination with Vp.
This case resembles to problem no.7 & 9 from projections of planes topic.
In previous all cases 2nd inclination was done by a parameter not showing TL.Like
Tv of axis is inclined to Vp etc. But here it is clearly said that the axis is 40 0 inclined
to Vp. Means here TL inclination is expected. So the same construction done in those
Problems is done here also. See carefully the final Tv and inclination taken there.
So assuming it standing on HP begin as usual.
o1
a1
h1
b1
hb
cg
g1
c1
c g
f d e
450
g
h
h1
e
d
c
o1
g1
f
f1
df
a hb
a1
d1
400
e1
Axis True Length
f1
1
b1
e1
e1
o1
f1
d1
g1
c1
Axis Tv Length
d1
Axis Tv Length
b1
h1
c1
a1
Locus of
Center 1
Problem :
A cylinder 40 mm diameter and 50 mm
axis is resting on one point of a base
circle on Vp while its axis makes 450
with Vp and Fv of the axis 350 with Hp.
Draw projections..
Solution Steps:
Resting on Vp on one point of base, means inclined to Vp:
1.Assume it standing on Vp
2.Its Fv will show True Shape of base & top( circle )
3.Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Fv & taking 50 mm axis project Tv.
( a Rectangle)
5.Draw 2nd Tv making axis 450 to xy And project its Fv above xy.
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Hp
( Fv of axis I.e. center line of view to xy as shown) & project final Tv.
4d
d
3
c a
1 a
4
c
3
c
2 b
bd
450
350
bd
d1
b
c1
b1
a1
24
24
4
3
1
Problem :A tetrahedron of 50 mm long

edges is resting on one edge on Hp
while one triangular face containing
this edge is vertical and 450 inclined to
Vp. Draw projections.
IMPORTANT:
Tetrahedron is a
special type
of triangular
pyramid in which
base sides &
slant edges are
equal in length.
Solid of four faces.
Like cube it is also
described by One X
dimension only..
Axis length
generally not given.
Solution Steps
As it is resting assume it standing on Hp.
Begin with Tv , an equilateral triangle as side case as shown:
First project base points of Fv on xy, name those & axis line.
From a with TL of edge, 50 mm, cut on axis line & mark o
(as axis is not known, o is finalized by slant edge length)
Then complete Fv.
In 2nd Fv make face obc vertical as said in problem.
And like all previous problems solve completely.
o1
o
TL
90
b
c
b c
c1
a1
b1
c1
450
a1
c1
o1
o1
b1
b1
a1
Solution Steps :
1.Assume it standing on Hp but as said on apex.( inverted ).

2.Its Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
3.Draw a corner case square of 30 mm sides as Tv(as shown)
Showing all slant edges dotted, as those will not be visible from top.
4.taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
6.Draw 2nd Fv keeping oa slant edge vertical & project its Tv
8.Then redrew 2nd Tv as final Tv keeping a1o1d1 triangular face
perpendicular to Vp I.e.xy. Then as usual project final Fv.
Problem :A square pyramid 30 mm base side

and 50 mm long axis is resting on its apex on Hp,
such that its one slant edge is vertical and a
triangular face through it is perpendicular to Vp.
bd
d
a
bo
bd
c ao1
1
a1
d1
b1
c1
o1
d1
b1
Y
d1
c1
c1
a1 1
o
b1
Solution Steps:
Problem : A cube of 50 mm long

edges is so placed on Hp on one
corner that a body diagonal is
parallel to Hp and perpendicular to
Vp Draw its projections.
1.Assuming standing on Hp, begin with Tv,a square with all sides
equally inclined to xy.Project Fv and name all points of FV & TV.
2.Draw a body-diagonal joining c with 3( This can become // to xy)
3.From 1 drop a perpendicular on this and name it p
4.Draw 2nd Fv in which 1-p line is vertical means c-3 diagonal
must be horizontal. .Now as usual project Tv..
6.In final Tv draw same diagonal is perpendicular to Vp as said in problem.
Then as usual project final FV.
a1
bd
c
p
c1
1
d1
d1
a1
c1
a1
b1
Y
b1
bd
d1
c1
d1
FREELY SUSPENDED SOLIDS:

Positions of CG, on axis, from base, for different solids are shown below.
CG
H/2
H
CG
H/4
GROUP A SOLIDS
( Cylinder & Prisms)
GROUP B SOLIDS
( Cone & Pyramids)
Problem : A pentagonal pyramid

30 mm base sides & 60 mm long axis,
is freely suspended from one corner of
base so that a plane containing its axis
remains parallel to Vp.
Draw its three views.
Solution Steps:
In all suspended cases axis shows inclination with Hp.
1.Hence assuming it standing on Hp, drew Tv - a regular pentagon,corner case.
2.Project Fv & locate CG position on axis ( H from base.) and name g and
Join it with corner d
3.As 2nd Fv, redraw first keeping line gd vertical.
4.As usual project corresponding Tv and then Side View looking from.
LINE
dg VERTICAL
d
d
ce
FOR SIDE VIEW
e
ab
IMPORTANT:
When a solid is freely
suspended from a
corner, then line
joining point of
contact & C.G.
remains vertical.
( Here axis shows
inclination with Hp.)
So in all such cases,
assume solid standing
on Hp initially.)
H/4
c e
a b
e1
a1
do
1
d1
b1
c
b
o
c1
Section of Solids
&
Development of
Lateral Surfaces
SECTIONING A SOLID.
An object ( here a solid ) is cut by
some imaginary cutting plane
to understand internal details of that
object.
The action of cutting is called

SECTIONING a solid
&
The plane of cutting is called
SECTION PLANE.
Two cutting actions means section planes are recommended.
OBSERVER
A) Section Plane perpendicular to Vp and inclined to Hp.

( This is a definition of an Aux. Inclined Plane i.e. A.I.P.)
NOTE:- This section plane appears
as a straight line in FV.
ASSUME
UPPER PART
REMOVED
E
AN
PL
.
N
TO N FV
C
I
SE
(A)
B) Section Plane perpendicular to Hp and inclined to Vp.

( This is a definition of an Aux. Vertical Plane i.e. A.V.P.)
NOTE:- This section plane appears
(B)
as a straight line in TV.
Remember:ASSUME
1. After launching a section plane
LOWER PART
either in FV or TV, the part towards observerREMOVED
is assumed to be removed.
2. As far as possible the smaller part is
assumed to be removed.
OBSERVER
SE
CT
ON
IN PLA
TV NE
.
ILLUSTRATION SHOWING
IMPORTANT TERMS
IN SECTIONING.
For TV
Fo
rT
ru
eS
ha
pe
SECTION
PLANE
TRUE SHAPE
Of SECTION
x
Apparent Shape
of section
SECTION LINES
(450 to XY)
SECTIONAL T.V.
Section Plane
Ellipse
Section PlaneTriangle Through Generators
Through Apex
Pa
rab
ola
Typical Section Planes

&
Typical Shapes
Of
Sections.
Section Plane Parallel

to end generator.
Ellipse
Cylinder through
generators.
Section Plane Hyperbola

Parallel to Axis.
Trapezium
Sq. Pyramid through

all slant edges
A square pyramid, base 40 mm side and axis 65 mm long, has its base on the HP and all the
edges of the base equally inclined to the VP. It is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to the VP,
inclined at 45 to the HP and bisecting the axis. Draw its sectional top view, sectional side view
and true shape of the section.
21
X1
31
41
3
11
2 4
1
b d
a
45
d
4
Y1
a c
Y
b
A pentagonal pyramid , base 30mm side and axis 60 mm long is lying on one of its triangular faces on the HP
with the axis parallel to the VP. A vertical section plane, whose HT bisects the top view of the axis and makes
an angle of 30 with the reference line, cuts the pyramid removing its top part. Draw the top view, sectional
front view and true shape of the section and development of the surface of the remaining portion of the
pyramid.
o
a
60
be
be
b
cd
cd
b1
c1
d
e
a1
30
d1
o1
3
31
21
41
e1
11
51
61
A Hexagonal prism has a face on the H.P. and the axis parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a vertical section plane
the H.T. of which makes an angle of 45 with XY and which cuts the axis at a point 20 mm from one of its
ends. Draw its sectional front view and the true shape of the section. Side of base 25 mm long height 65mm.
a
f
b
e
c
d
a f
65
a f
b e
b e
2
a
f
b
e
b
c
d
b1
b1
1 2
37
a1 c1
a1 c1
Y1
25
cd
cd
f
e
4 6
f1 d1
e1
f1 d1
20
e1
31
21
11
41
71
X1
51
61
A Cone base 75 mm diameter and axis 80 mm long is resting on its base on H.P. It is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to the V.P., inclined at 45 to the H.P. and cutting the axis at a point 35 mm from the apex. Draw
the front view, sectional top view, sectional side view and true shape of the section.
f1
X1
l1
35
j1
i1
d
j
g
f
e h
i
b
l
4
10
6
8
5
9
4 5
3
5
6
e
f
g
12
l
k
11
k
l
a
3
2
2 3
1 12 11
h
i
c
k
10
Y1
6
2
7
1
8 910
12 11
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES OF SOLIDS.

MEANING:ASSUME OBJECT HOLLOW AND MADE-UP OF THIN SHEET. CUT OPEN IT FROM ONE SIDE AND
UNFOLD THE SHEET COMPLETELY. THEN THE SHAPE OF THAT UNFOLDED SHEET IS CALLED
DEVELOPMENT OF LATERLAL SUEFACES OF THAT OBJECT OR SOLID.
LATERLAL SURFACE IS THE SURFACE EXCLUDING SOLIDS TOP & BASE.
ENGINEERING APLICATION:
THERE ARE SO MANY PRODUCTS OR OBJECTS WHICH ARE DIFFICULT TO MANUFACTURE BY
CONVENTIONAL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES, BECAUSE OF THEIR SHAPES AND SIZES.
THOSE ARE FABRICATED IN SHEET METAL INDUSTRY BY USING
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUE. THERE IS A VAST RANGE OF SUCH OBJECTS.
EXAMPLES:Boiler Shells & chimneys, Pressure Vessels, Shovels, Trays, Boxes & Cartons, Feeding Hoppers,
Large Pipe sections, Body & Parts of automotives, Ships, Aeroplanes and many more.
WHAT IS
OUR OBJECTIVE
IN THIS TOPIC ?
But before going ahead,

note following
Important points.
To learn methods of development of surfaces of

different solids, their sections and frustums.
1. Development is different drawing than PROJECTIONS.
2. It is a shape showing AREA, means its a 2-D plain drawing.
3. Hence all dimensions of it must be TRUE dimensions.
4. As it is representing shape of an un-folded sheet, no edges can remain hidden
And hence DOTTED LINES are never shown on development.
Study illustrations given on next page carefully.
Development of lateral surfaces of different solids.

(Lateral surface is the surface excluding top & base)
A Rectangle
Cone: (Sector of circle)
Pyramids: (No.of triangles)
Cylinder:
H
H= Height D= base diameter
Prisms:
L= Slant edge.
S = Edge of base
R=Base circle radius.

L=Slant height.
R 3600
No.of Rectangles
H= Height S = Edge of base
Tetrahedron: Four Equilateral Triangles
All sides
equal in length
Cube: Six Squares.
FRUSTUMS
DEVELOPMENT OF
FRUSTUM OF CONE
DEVELOPMENT OF
FRUSTUM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
Base side
Top side
L1
L1
R 3600
L
R= Base circle radius of cone

L= Slant height of cone
L1 = Slant height of cut part.
L= Slant edge of pyramid

L1 = Slant edge of cut part.
STUDY NEXT NINE PROBLEMS OF

SECTIONS & DEVELOPMENT
Problem : A pentagonal prism , 30 mm base side & 50 mm axis

is standing on Hp on its base whose one side is perpendicular to Vp.
It is cut by a section plane 450 inclined to Hp, through mid point of axis.
Draw Fv, sec.Tv & sec. Side view. Also draw true shape of section and
Development of surface of remaining solid.
UE
R
T
E
AP
H
S
Y1
E
d
c
X1
e
b
X
e
c
b
Solution Steps:for sectional views:

Draw three views of standing prism.
Locate sec.plane in Fv as described.
Project points where edges are getting
Cut on Tv & Sv as shown in illustration.
Join those points in sequence and show
Section lines in it.
Make remaining part of solid dark.
DEVELOPMENT
For True Shape:

a
Draw x1y1 // to sec. plane
Draw projectors on it from
cut points.
Mark distances of points
of Sectioned part from Tv,
on above projectors from
x1y1 and join in sequence.
Draw section lines in it.
It is required true shape.
c
b
For Development:
Draw development of entire solid. Name from
cut-open edge I.e. A. in sequence as shown.
Mark the cut points on respective edges.
Join them in sequence in st. lines.
Make existing parts dev.dark.
Problem : A cone, 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm axis is

standing on its base on Hp. It cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined
to Hp through base end of end generator.Draw projections,
sectional views, true shape of section and development of surfaces
of remaining solid.
OF
N
IO
T
C
SE
Y1
SECTIONAL S.V
o
SE
PL C T
AN IO
E N
U
TR
SH
E
AP
Solution Steps:for sectional views:

Draw three views of standing cone.
Locate sec.plane in Fv as described.
Project points where generators are
getting Cut on Tv & Sv as shown in
illustration.Join those points in
sequence and show Section lines in it.
Make remaining part of solid dark.
B
DEVELOPMENT
C
D
X1
E
X
a hb
c g
f d
g
For True Shape:
Draw x1y1 // to sec. plane
Draw projectors on it from
cut points.
Mark distances of points
of Sectioned part from Tv,
on above projectors from
x1y1 and join in sequence.
Draw section lines in it.
It is required true shape.
g hf
ae
bd c
F
G
e
b
d
c
SECTIONAL T.V
For Development:
Draw development of entire solid.
Name from cut-open edge i.e. A.
in sequence as shown.Mark the cut
points on respective edges.
Join them in sequence in
curvature. Make existing parts
dev.dark.
H
A
Problem : A cone 40mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one generator on Hp( lying on Hp)
which is // to Vp.. Draw its projections.It is cut by a horizontal section plane through its base
center. Draw sectional TV, development of the surface of the remaining part of cone.
Follow similar solution steps for Sec.views - True shape Development as per previous problem!
DEVELOPMENT
A
o
a
h
b
c
g
HORIZONTAL
SECTION PLANE
c g
f d e
g
h
o Y
a hb
df
f1
d
c
h1
e e1
O
b
g1
f
a1
F
G
o1
H
b1
d1
c1
SECTIONAL T.V
(SHOWING TRUE SHAPE OF SECTION)
c f
a b
Problem : A hexagonal prism. 30 mm base side &

55 mm axis is lying on Hp on its rect.face with axis
// to Vp. It is cut by a section plane normal to Hp and
300 inclined to Vp bisecting axis.
Draw sec. Views, true shape & development.
Note the steps to locate

Points 1, 2 , 5, 6 in sec.Fv:
Those are transferred to
1st TV, then to 1st Fv and
Then on 2nd Fv.
d e
SECTIONAL F.V.
4
Use similar steps for sec.views & true shape.
a b
NOTE: for development, always cut open object from

From an edge in the boundary of the view in which
sec.plane appears as a line.
Here it is Tv and in boundary, there is c1 edge.Hence
it is opened from c and named C,D,E,F,A,B,C.
c f
f
1,2
f1
3 ,8
a1 e1
4 ,7
d e
A.V.P300 inclined to Vp
Through mid-point of axis.
b1 d1
5 ,6
c X1
1
AS SECTION PLANE IS IN T.V.,

CUT OPEN FROM BOUNDRY EDGE C1 FOR DEVELOPMENT.
c1
3
TR
UE
SH
AP
E
OF
SE
CT
I
ON
Y1
DEVELOPMENT
E
AP
H
S
UE 2
TR
Problem :A solid composed of a half-cone and half- hexagonal pyramid is

shown in figure.It is cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined to Hp, passing through
mid-point of axis.Draw F.v., sectional T.v.,true shape of section and
development of remaining part of the solid.
( take radius of cone and each side of hexagon 30mm long and axis 70mm.)
3
4
Y1
5
1
Note:
A
ME
NT
4
X1
2 6
3
5
DE
VE
LO
P
F.V.
C
2
de
cf
f
3
2
c
SECTIONAL 7
TOP VIEW.
gb
1 7
X
Fv & TV 8f two solids

sandwiched
Section lines style in both:
Development of
half cone & half pyramid:
G
A
Problem : Draw a semicircle 0f 100 mm diameter and inscribe in it a largest

circle.If the semicircle is development of a cone and inscribed circle is some
curve on it, then draw the projections of cone showing that curve.
1
7
c g
a h b
3 5
df e Y
3
2
G
6
H
2
6
2
R=Base circle radius.

L=Slant height.
R 3600 C
TO DRAW PRINCIPAL
VIEWS FROM GIVEN
DEVELOPMENT.
7
A
L
Solution Steps:
Draw semicircle of given diameter, divide it in 8 Parts and inscribe in it
a largest circle as shown.Name intersecting points 1, 2, 3 etc.
Semicircle being dev.of a cone its radius is slant height of cone.( L )
Then using above formula find R of base of cone. Using this data
draw Fv & Tv of cone and form 8 generators and name.
Take o -1 distance from dev.,mark on TL i.e.oa on Fv & bring on ob
and name 1 Similarly locate all points on Fv. Then project all on Tv
on respective generators and join by smooth curve.
Projection of
Straight Line
PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES.

INFORMATION REGARDING A LINE means
ITS LENGTH,
POSITION OF ITS ENDS WITH HP & VP
ITS INCLINATIONS WITH HP & VP WILL BE GIVEN.
AIM:- TO DRAW ITS PROJECTIONS - MEANS FV & TV.
SIMPLE CASES OF THE LINE
1.
A VERTICAL LINE ( LINE PERPENDICULAR TO HP & // TO VP)
2.
LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP & VP.
3.
LINE INCLINED TO HP & PARALLEL TO VP.
4.
LINE INCLINED TO VP & PARALLEL TO HP.
5.
LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP.
STUDY ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON NEXT PAGE

SHOWING CLEARLY THE NATURE OF FV & TV
OF LINES LISTED ABOVE AND NOTE RESULTS .
Orthographic Pattern
For Tv
(Pictorial Presentation)
Note:
Fv is a vertical line
Showing True Length
&
Tv is a point.
.
V.P
1.
A Line
perpendicular
to Hp
&
// to Vp
A
FV
b
a
Fv
b
Fo
rF
v
V.P.
TV a b
Tv a b
H.P.
Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial Presentation)
2.
.
V.P
A Line
// to Hp
&
// to Vp
.
F.V
V.P.
Note:
Fv & Tv both are
// to xy
&
both show T. L.
For Tv
b
B
Fv
a
A
Y
Fo
r
b
X
a
Fv
V.
T.
H.P.
Tv
A Line inclined to Hp
and
parallel to Vp
.
V.P
b
.
F.V
F.
V.
3.
V.P.
Fv inclined to xy
Tv parallel to xy.
(Pictorial presentation)
.
T.V
Y
a
T.V.
H.P.
Orthographic Projections
4.
A Line inclined to Vp
and
parallel to Hp
.
V.P
a
V.P.
Tv inclined to xy
Fv parallel to xy.
F.V.
T.V.
Y
a
Fv
Tv
H.P.
For Tv
For Tv
5. A
.
V.P
Line inclined to both

Hp and Vp
F.V
.
F.V
.
B
Y
For
Fv
A
X
.
V.P
On removal of object
i.e. Line AB
Fv as a image on Vp.
Tv as a image on Hp,
For
Fv
A
X
T.V.
T.V.
V.P.
b
FV
a
Fv is seen on Vp clearly.
To see Tv clearly, HP is
rotated 900 downwards,
Hence it comes below xy.
TV
H.P.
Note These Facts:Both Fv & Tv are inclined to xy.

(No view is parallel to xy)
Both Fv & Tv are reduced
lengths.
(No view shows True Length)
Note the procedure

When Fv & Tv known,
How to find True Length.
(Views are rotated to determine
True Length & its inclinations
with Hp & Vp).
Means Fv & Tv of Line AB
are shown below,
with their apparent Inclinations
&
V.P.
V.P.
V.P.
b
FV
a
a
Y
Fv
TL
TV
H.P.
b b1
b 1
FV
Note the procedure

When True Length is known,
How to locate FV & TV.
(Component ab2 of TL is drawn
which is further rotated
to determine FV)
TV
b1
Here TV (ab) is not // to XY line

Hence its corresponding FV
a b is not showing
True Length &
True Inclination with Hp.
H.P.
Y
a
b1
Tv
In this sketch, TV is rotated

and made // to XY line.
Hence its corresponding
FV a b1 Is showing
True Length
&
True Inclination with Hp.
b2
TV
TL
H.P.
TL
b2
V
I
D
E
O
Here ab1 is component

of TL ab1 gives length of FV.
Hence it is brought Up to
Locus of a and further rotated
to get point b. a b will be Fv.
Similarly drawing component
of other TL(ab1) TV can be drawn.
The most important diagram showing graphical relations

among all important parameters of this topic.
Study and memorize it as a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
And use in solving various problems.
1) True Length ( TL) a b1 & a b

2) Angle of TL with Hp 3) Angle of TL with Vp
4) Angle of FV with xy
5) Angle of TV with xy
V.P.
Distance between
End Projectors.
Important
TEN parameters
to be remembered
with Notations
used here onward
6) LTV (length of FV) Component (a-1)
b 1
7) LFV (length of TV) Component (a-1)

8) Position of A- Distances of a & a from xy
Fv
9) Position of B- Distances of b & b from xy
TL
10) Distance between End Projectors
LTV
LFV
&
&
NOTE this
Construct with a
Construct with a
b & b1 on same locus.
b & b1 on same locus.

Tv
H.P.
TL
b1
Also Remember
True Length is never rotated. Its horizontal component
is drawn & it is further rotated to locate view.
Views are always rotated, made horizontal & further
extended to locate TL, &
PROBLEM
Line AB is 75 mm long and it is 300 &
400 Inclined to Hp & Vp respectively.
End A is 12mm above Hp and 10 mm
in front of Vp.
Draw projections. Line is in 1st quadrant.
b
FV
SOLUTION STEPS:
1) Draw xy line and one projector.
2) Locate a 12mm above xy line
& a 10mm below xy line.
3) Take 300 angle from a & 400 from
a and mark TL I.e. 75mm on both
lines. Name those points b1 and b1
respectively.
4) Join both points with a and a resp.
5) Draw horizontal lines (Locus) from
both points.
6) Draw horizontal component of TL
a b1 from point b1 and name it 1.
( the length a-1 gives length of Fv
as we have seen already.)
7) Extend it up to locus of a and
rotating a as center locate b
as shown. Join a b as Fv.
8) From b drop a projector down
ward & get point b. Join a & b
b1
TL
a
X
Y
a
LFV
TV
TL
b1
PROBLEM :
Line AB 75mm long makes 450 inclination with Vp while its Fv makes 550.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp.If line is in 1st quadrant
draw its projections and find its inclination with Hp.
b1 LOCUS OF b
TL
55
X
LFV
45 0
TL
TV
1.Draw x-y line.

2.Draw one projector for a & a
3.Locate a 10mm above x-y &
Tv a 15 mm below xy.
4.Draw a line 450 inclined to xy
from point a and cut TL 75 mm
on it and name that point b1
Draw locus from point b1
5.Take 550 angle from a for Fv
above xy line.
6.Draw a vertical line from b1
up to locus of a and name it 1.
It is horizontal component of
TL & is LFV.
7.Continue it to locus of a and
rotate upward up to the line
of Fv and name it b.This a b
line is Fv.
8. Drop a projector from b on
locus from point b1 and
name intersecting point b.
Line a b is Tv of line AB.
9.Draw locus from b and from
a with TL distance cut point b1
10.Join a b1 as TL and measure
its angle at a.
It will be true angle of line with HP.
FV
Solution Steps:-
LOCUS OF b
b1
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.
2.Locate a 10 mm above xy and
a 15 mm below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Draw Fv 500 to xy from a and
mark b Cutting 55mm on it.
5.Similarly draw Tv 600 to xy
from a & drawing projector from b
Locate point b and join a b.
6.Then rotating views as shown,
locate True Lengths ab1 & ab1
and their angles with Hp and Vp.
FV
PROBLEM :
Fv
of line AB is 500 inclined to xy and measures 55
mm long while its Tv is 600 inclined to xy line.
If
end A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of
Vp, draw its projections,find TL, inclinations of line
with Hp & Vp.
b1
TL
500
y
a
600
TL
b1
TL
LTV
Y
a
LFV
TL
TV
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.
2.Locate a 10 mm above xy and
a 15 mm below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Cut 60mm distance on locus of a
& mark 1 on it as it is LTV.
5.Similarly Similarly cut 50mm on
locus of a and mark point 1 as it is LFV.
6.From 1 draw a vertical line upward
and from a taking TL ( 75mm ) in
compass, mark b1 point on it.
Join a b1 points.
7. Draw locus from b1
8. With same steps below get b1 point
and draw also locus from it.
9. Now rotating one of the components
I.e. a-1 locate b and join a with it
to get Fv.
10. Locate tv similarly and measure
&
Angles
FV
PROBLEM 4 :Line AB is 75 mm long .Its Fv and Tv measure 50 mm & 60 mm long respectively.

End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp. Draw projections of line AB
if end B is in first quadrant.Find angle with Hp and Vp.
b
b1
b1
LINE IN A PROFILE PLANE ( MEANS IN A PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO BOTH HP & VP)

For T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PATTERN OF LINE IN PROFILE PLANE
VP
a
PP
VT
A
FV
a
LSV
b
X
B
a
b
HT
For
F.V
.
TV
b
b
HP
Results:1. TV & FV both are vertical, hence arrive on one single projector.
2. Its Side View shows True Length ( TL)
3. Sum of its inclinations with HP & VP equals to 90 0 ( + = 900 )
4. Its HT & VT arrive on same projector and can be easily located
From Side View.
OBSERVE CAREFULLY ABOVE GIVEN ILLUSTRATION AND 2 nd SOLVED PROBLEM.
PROBLEM :- A line AB, 75mm long, has one end A in Vp. Other end B is 15 mm above Hp
and 50 mm in front of Vp.Draw the projections of the line when sum of its
Inclinations with HP & Vp is 900, means it is lying in a profile plane.
Find true angles with ref.planes and its traces.
Front view
After drawing xy line and one projector
Locate top view of A I.e point a on xy as
It is in Vp,
b
Locate Fv of B i.e.b15 mm above xy as
a
X
it is above Hp.and Tv of B i.e. b, 50 mm
below xy asit is 50 mm in front of Vp
Draw side view structure of Vp and Hp
top view
and locate S.V. of point B i.e. b
From this point cut 75 mm distance on Vp and
b
Mark a as A is in Vp. (This is also VT of line.)
From this point draw locus to left & get a
HT
Extend SV up to Hp. It will be HT. As it is a Tv
Rotate it and bring it on projector of b.
Now as discussed earlier SV gives TL of line
and at the same time on extension up to Hp & Vp
gives inclinations with those panes.
(VT)
Side View
( True Length )
VP
SOLUTION STEPS:-
VT
a
HP
b
(HT)
Projection of straight line

Line inclined to both HP & VP
Type-I
Given projections (FV & TV) of the line. To find True length & true
inclination of the line with HP () and with VP().
PROBLEM
End A of a line AB is 15mm above HP & 20mm in front of VP while
its end B is 50mm above HP and 75mm in front of VP. The distance
between end projectors of the line is 50mm. Draw projections of the
line and find its true length and true inclination with the principal
planes. Also mark its traces.
b1
: True inclination of
the line with HP = 24
TL
50
a
X
HT VT
h
15
b2
: Inclination of FV of
the line with HP/XY
Y
50
20
b1
: Inclination of TV of
the line with VP/XY
75
TL
: True inclination of
the line with VP = 41
b2
Type II
Line inclined to both HP & VP
Given (i) T.L., and ,

(ii) T.L., F.V., T.V.
to draw projections, find , ,H.T. and V.T.
PROBLEM
A line AB, 70mm long, has its end A 15mm above HP and 20mm in front
of VP. It is inclined at 30 to HP and 45to VP. Draw its projections and
mark its traces.
b1
70
a
15
X
30
b2
HT
VT
h
20
b1
a
45
70
b2
The top view of a 75mm long line AB measures 65mm,while its front view
measures 50mm. Its one end A is in HP and12mm in front of VP. Draw the
projections of AB and determine its inclination with HP and VP
To draw FV &TV of the line
AB
Given,
TL=75mm,TV=65mm,FV=50mm
A is in HP & 12mm VP
To find &
b1
50
Ans. =31
75
Ans. =49
12
31
a
Hint: Draw ab1=65mm // to XY.

Because when TV is // to XY, FV
gives TL.
b1
65
49
75
65
b2
A line AB, 65mm long has its end A 20mm above H.P. and 25mm in front of VP.
The end B is 40mm above H.P. and 65mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections of
AB and show its inclination with H.P. and V.P.
Given,
To draw FV &TV of the line

AB
TL=65mm
Hint1:Mark a 20mm above

H.P & a 25mm below XY
To find &
A is 20mm HP & 25mm V.P.
b1
b
B is 40mm & 65mm V.P.
65
b2
40
Hint2:Draw locus of b 40mm

above XY & locus of b 65 mm
below XY
20
18
X
25
Y
38
Ans. =18
b1
65
a
65
b2
Ans. =38
The projectors of the ends of a line AB are 5cm apart. The end A is 2cm
above the H.P and 3cm in front of V.P. The end B is1cm below H.P. and 4cm
behind the V.P. Determine the true length and traces of AB, and its inclination
with the two planes
Given,
To find,
True Length, ,, H.T. and V.T.
A0B0=50mm
A is 20mm HP & 30mm V.P.
B is 10mm & 40mm V.P.
b2
20
HT
b2
91
VT
40
v
h
10
50
30
50
20
Ans. =20
b1
Ans. =50
A line AB, 90mm long, is inclined at 45 to the H.P. and its top view makes an
angle of 60 with the V.P. The end A is in the H.P. and 12mm in front of V.P.
Draw its front view and find its true inclination with the V.P.
b
Given,
T.L.=90mm, =45, =60
is in the H.P. & 12mmV.P.
b1
To find/draw,
F.V.,T.V. &
90
Ans. = 38
a
12
X
a
45
60 38
b1
90
b2
The top view of a 75mm long line CD measures 50 mm. C is 50 mm in front of the VP & 15mm
below the HP. D is 15 mm in front of the VP & is above the HP. Draw the FV of CD & find its
inclinations with the HP and the VP. Show also its traces.
Given,
To draw,
TL = 75 mm, FV =50 mm,

C is 15mm HP & 50 mm VP,
D is 15 mm VP
FV & to find &

d1
Hint 1: Cut anarc of 50 mm

from c on locus of D
75
Hint 2: Make TV (cd), // to XY

so that FV will give TL
50
15
d2
=48
Locus of D
50
=28
d1
Ans: =48
Ans: =28
A line PQ 100 mm long is inclined at 30 to the H.P. and at 45 to the V.P. Its mid point is
in the V.P. and 20 mm above the H.P. Draw its projections, if its end P is in the third
quadrant and Q is in the first quadrant.
Given,
To draw,
TL = 100, = 30, Mid point M is

20mmHP & in the VP
End P in third quadrant &
End Q in first quadrant
FV & TV
q
p2
p1
p1
p
m
50
30
50
p
50
q2
20
p2
q1
q2
50
q
q2
Isometric
Projections
ISOMETRIC DRAWING
IT IS A TYPE OF PICTORIAL PROJECTION
IN WHICH ALL THREE DIMENSIONS OF
AN OBJECT ARE SHOWN IN ONE VIEW AND
IF REQUIRED, THEIR ACTUAL SIZES CAN BE
MEASURED DIRECTLY FROM IT.
3-D DRAWINGS CAN BE DRAWN
IN NUMEROUS WAYS AS SHOWN BELOW.
ALL THESE DRAWINGS MAY BE CALLED
3-DIMENSIONAL DRAWINGS,
OR PHOTOGRAPHIC
OR PICTORIAL DRAWINGS.
HERE NO SPECIFIC RELATION
AMONG H, L & D AXES IS MENTAINED.
TYPICAL CONDITION.
IN THIS 3-D DRAWING OF AN OBJECT,

ALL THREE DIMENSIONAL AXES ARE
MENTAINED AT EQUAL INCLINATIONS
WITH EACH OTHER.( 1200)
NOW OBSERVE BELOW GIVEN DRAWINGS.

ONE CAN NOTE SPECIFIC INCLINATION
AMONG H, L & D AXES.
ISO MEANS SAME, SIMILAR OR EQUAL.
HERE ONE CAN FIND
EDUAL INCLINATION AMONG H, L & D AXES.
EACH IS 1200 INCLINED WITH OTHER TWO.
HENCE IT IS CALLED ISOMETRIC DRAWING
PURPOSE OF ISOMETRIC DRAWING IS TO UNDERSTAND

OVERALL SHAPE, SIZE & APPEARANCE OF AN OBJECT PRIOR TO ITS PRODUCTION.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:

ISOMETRIC AXES, LINES AND PLANES:
The three lines AL, AD and AH, meeting at point A and making
1200 angles with each other are termed Isometric Axes.
A
The lines parallel to these axes are called Isometric Lines.
The planes representing the faces of of the cube as well as
other planes parallel to these planes are called Isometric Planes.
ISOMETRIC SCALE:
When one holds the object in such a way that all three dimensions
are visible then in the process all dimensions become proportionally
inclined to observers eye sight and hence appear apparent in lengths.
This reduction is 0.815 or 9 / 11 ( approx.) It forms a reducing scale which
Is used to draw isometric drawings and is called Isometric scale.
In practice, while drawing isometric projection, it is necessary to convert
true lengths into isometric lengths for measuring and marking the sizes.
This is conveniently done by constructing an isometric scale as described
TYPES OF ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS
ISOMETRIC VIEW
Drawn by using True scale
( True dimensions )
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
Drawn by using Isometric scale
( Reduced dimensions )
H
UE
R
T 1
0
0 300
NG
E
L
S
TH 2
.
1 ISOM
4
3
2 TH S
NG
LE
450
Isometric scale [ Line AC ]

required for Isometric Projection
CONSTRUCTION OF ISOM.SCALE.
From point A, with line AB draw 300 and
450 inclined lines AC & AD resp on AD.
Mark divisions of true length and from
each division-point draw vertical lines
upto AC line.
The divisions thus obtained on AC
give lengths on isometric scale.
AS THESE ALL ARE

2-D FIGURES
WE REQUIRE ONLY TWO
ISOMETRIC AXES.
H
RECTANGLE
C
A
IF THE FIGURE IS FRONT

VIEW, H & L AXES ARE
REQUIRED.
1
B
H
TRIANGLE
B
IF THE FIGURE IS TOP

VIEW, D & L AXES ARE
REQUIRED.
3
2
Shapes containing
Inclined lines should
be enclosed in a
rectangle as shown.
Then first draw isom.
of that rectangle and
then inscribe that
shape as it is.
Isometric view if the Shape is

F.V.
or
T.V.
SHAPE
ISOMETRIC
OF
PLANE FIGURES
L
A
1
2
2
4
PENTAGON
E
4
D
E
A
D
C
L 1
C
L
3
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A
CIRCLE IF IT IS A TV OR FV.
FIRST ENCLOSE IT IN A SQUARE.

ITS ISOMETRIC IS A RHOMBUS WITH
D & L AXES FOR TOP VIEW.
THEN USE H & L AXES FOR ISOMETRIC
WHEN IT IS FRONT VIEW.
FOR CONSTRUCTION USE RHOMBUS
METHOD SHOWN HERE. STUDY IT.
D
1
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
25 R
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE FIGURE

SHOWN WITH DIMENTIONS (ON RIGHT SIDE)
CONSIDERING IT FIRST AS F.V. AND THEN T.V.
50 MM
IF FRONT VIEW
100 MM
IF TOP VIEW
ISOMETRIC
OF
PLANE FIGURES
AS THESE ALL ARE

2-D FIGURES
WE REQUIRE ONLY
TWO ISOMETRIC
AXES.
SHAPE
IF F.V.
IF T.V.
HEXAGON
CIRCLE
IF THE FIGURE IS
FRONT VIEW, H & L
AXES ARE
REQUIRED.
For Isometric of Circle/Semicircle use Rhombus method. Construct Rhomb
IF THE FIGURE IS of sides equal to Diameter of circle always. ( Ref. topic ENGG. CURVES.
TOP VIEW, D & L
SEMI CIRCLE
AXES
AREof
For
Isometric
REQUIRED.
Circle/Semicircle
use Rhombus method.
Construct it of sides equal
to diameter of circle always.
( Ref. Previous two pages.)
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P.
(Height is added from center of pentagon)
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF BASE OF

PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P.
4
4
D
L
3
1
C
3
C
A
B
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
PENTAGONALL PRISM
LYING ON H.P.
4
H
L
C
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
HEXAGONAL PRISM
STANDING ON H.P.
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
CYLINDER STANDING ON H.P.
CYLINDER LYING ON H.P.
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
60
FV
40
20
TV
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
A FRUSTOM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P. ON ITS LARGER BASE.
STUDY
ILLUSTRATION
ISOMETRIC VIEW
OF
FRUSTOM OF PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
PROJECTIONS OF FRUSTOM OF
PENTAGONAL PYRAMID ARE GIVEN.
DRAW ITS ISOMETRIC VIEW.
SOLUTION STEPS:
FV
FIRST DRAW ISOMETRIC

OF ITS BASE.
x
1
THEN DRAWSAME SHAPE

AS TOP, 60 MM ABOVE THE
BASE PENTAGON CENTER.
THEN REDUCE THE TOP TO

20 MM SIDES AND JOIN WITH
THE PROPER BASE CORNERS.
TV 40 20
40
60
20
60
2
C
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
A FRUSTOM OF CONE
STANDING ON H.P. ON ITS LARGER BASE.
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
60
FV
40
20
TV
PROBLEM: A SQUARE PYRAMID OF 30 MM BASE SIDES AND

50 MM LONG AXIS, IS CENTRALLY PLACED ON THE TOP OF A
CUBE OF 50 MM LONG EDGES.DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE PAIR.
50
30
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
50
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
FV
30
10
30
30 D
50
50
TV
PROBLEM:
A SQUARE PLATE IS PIERCED THROUGH CENTRALLY
BY A CYLINDER WHICH COMES OUT EQUALLY FROM BOTH FACES
OF PLATE. ITS FV & TV ARE SHOWN. DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW.
ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS OF SPHERE & HEMISPHERE

450
Iso
-D
ire
300
Isom. Scale
R
r
P
r
R
on
c ti
STUDY
ILLUSTRATIONS
TO DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

OF A HEMISPHERE
C = Center of Sphere.
P = Point of contact
R = True Radius of Sphere
r = Isometric Radius.
TO DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A SPHERE
1. FIRST DRAW ISOMETRIC OF SQUARE PLATE.

2. LOCATE ITS CENTER. NAME IT P.
3. FROM PDRAW VERTICAL LINE UPWARD, LENGTH r mm
AND LOCATE CENTER OF SPHERE C
4. C AS CENTER, WITH RADIUS R DRAW CIRCLE.
THIS IS ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A SPHERE.
Adopt same procedure.

Draw lower semicircle only.
Then around C construct
Rhombus of Sides equal to
Isometric Diameter.
For this use iso-scale.
Then construct ellipse in
this Rhombus as usual
And Complete
Isometric-Projection
of Hemi-sphere.
PROBLEM:
A HEMI-SPHERE IS CENTRALLY PLACED
ON THE TOP OF A FRUSTOM OF CONE.
DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS OF THE ASSEMBLY.
STUDY
ILLUSTRATIONS
r
50 D
R
30 D
50
50 D
FIRST CONSTRUCT ISOMETRIC SCALE.
USE THIS SCALE FOR ALL DIMENSIONS
IN THIS PROBLEM.
450
R
r
300
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw its isometric view
FV
30
10
30
SV
30
10
30
TV
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw its isometric view
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL
FV
SV
10
40
40
60
60
TV
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw its isometric view.
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL
FV
SV
x
10
40
40
60
TV
60
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw its isometric view.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FRONT VIEW
L.H.SIDE VIEW
20
20
20
50
20
30
20
20
TOP VIEW
20
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.

Draw its isometric view.
30 SQUARE
40
20
50
20
10
30
F.V.
O
60
S.V.
STUDY
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw its isometric view.
FV
40
10
45
30 D
10
50
O
80
TV
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
40
FV
10
100
10
25
TV
10
30
10
25
30 R
20 D
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
30
FV
RECT.
SLOT
10
50
35
10
O
20 D
TV
60 D
30 D
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw its isometric view.
10
25
15
25
40
10
25
25
80
F.V.
25
S.V.
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

HEX PART
30
20
20
40
20
50
20
15
O
100
30
60
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
40
20
F.V.
30
10
X
10
30
10
30
80
T.V.

10
10
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
15
25
25
Y
50
FV
10
LSV
NOTE THE SMALL CHZNGE IN 2ND FV & SV.

DRAW ISOMETRIC ACCORDINGLY.
10
Y
FV
LSV
Thank You

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Vishwakarma Government

Mechanical Engineering Department

Dedicated To Beloved Students Of Engineering

DIMENSION FIGURES : ORIENTATION

of length using aligned method.

of length using unidirectional method.

of angle using aligned method.

of angle using unidirectional method.

Superimposed Running Dimensions

PROBLEM : To make 12 equal parts of line.

Scale is the ratio of the linear dimension of an element

for full size

for enlargement scales

for reduction scales

REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =

LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F. MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)

( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)

Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure

CONSTRUCTION:a) Calculate R.F.=

R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100

In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long.

RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000

PROBLEM NO.:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters

Section Plane Parallel

COMMON DEFINATION OF ELLIPSE, PARABOLA & HYPERBOL

SECOND DEFINATION OF AN ELLIPSE:It is a locus of a point moving in a plane

BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD

Problem :Draw ellipse by concentric circle method.

Problem :Draw ellipse by Oblong method.

STEPS ARE SIMILAR TO

BY ARCS OF CIRCLE METHOD

PROBLEM :- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE

PROBLEM : A BALL THROWN IN AIR ATTAINS 100 M HIEGHT

PARABOLA RECTANGLE METHOD

PROBLEM:A stone is thrown from a building 6 m

STONE FALLS HERE

STONE FALLS HERE

PROBLEM : Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB.

Problem No: Point P is 40 mm and 30 mm from horizontal

Problem no: A sample of gas is expanded in a cylinder

Form a table giving few more values of P & V

Now draw a Graph of

PROBLEM :- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE

TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL

TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL

IT IS A LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE

IT IS A LOCUS OF A FREE END OF A STRING

IT IS A CURVE GENERATED BY A POINT

Problem no : Draw Involute of a circle.

Problem : Draw Involute of a circle.

Problem : Draw Involute of a circle.

String length is LESS than the circumference of circle.

String length LESS than D

PROBLEM : A POLE IS OF A SHAPE OF HALF HEXABON AND SEMICIRCLE.

(Take hex 30 mm sides and semicircle of 60 mm diameter.)

PROBLEM:Draw an involute of a square

PROBLEM:Draw an involute of a pentagon having

PROBLEM : DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE

PROBLEM : DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE

And radius of directing circle i.e. curved path, 75 mm.

OP=Radius of directing circle=75mm