Biomedical

Instrumentation
Chapter 6 in
Introduction to Biomedical
Equipment Technology
By Joseph Carr and John Brown

Signal Acquisition
Medical

Instrumentation typically entails

monitoring a signal off the body which is
analog, converting it to an electrical
signal, and digitizing it to be analyzed
by the computer.

Types of Sensors:
Electrodes:

acquire an electrical signal

Transducers:

acquire a non-electrical
signal (force, pressure, temp etc) and
converts it to an electrical signal

Active vs Passive Sensors:

Active

Sensor:

Requires an external AC or DC electrical

source to power the device

Strain gauge, blood pressure sensor

Passive

Sensor:

Provides it own energy or derives energy

from phenomenon being studied

Thermocouple

Sensor Error Sources

Error:

Difference between measured value

and true value.

5 Categories of Errors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Insertion Error
Application Error
Characteristic Error
Dynamic Error
Environmental Error

Insertion Error:

Error occurring when inserting a

sensor

Application Error:

Errors caused by Operator

Characteristic Error:

Errors inherent to Device

Dynamic Error:

Most instruments are calibrated in static

conditions if you are reading a thermistor it
takes time to change its value. If you read
this value to quickly an error will result.

Environmental Error:

Errors caused by environment

heat, humidity

Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity:

Slope of output characteristic curve y/ x;

Minimum input of physical parameter will

create a detectable output change

Blood pressure transducer may have a
sensitivity of 10 uV/V/mmHg so you will see a
10 uV change for every V or mmHg applied to
the system.

Output

Output
Input

Input

Which is more sensitive? The left side one because

youll have a larger change in y for a given change in x

Sensor Terminology
Sensitivity

Error = Departure from ideal

slope of a characteristic curve
Output

Ideal Curve

Input
Sensitivity Error

Sensor Terminology
Range

= Maximum and Minimum values

of applied parameter that can be
measured.

If an instrument can read up to 200 mmHg

and the actual reading is 250 mmHg then you

have exceeded the range of the instrument.

Sensor Terminology

Dynamic Range: total range of sensor for

minimum to maximum. Ie if your instrument
can measure from -10V to +10 V your dynamic
range is 20V
Precision = Degree of reproducibility denoted
as the range of one standard deviation
Resolution = smallest detectable incremental
change of input parameter that can be
detected

Accuracy
Accuracy

= maximum difference that will

exist between the actual value and the
indicated value of the sensor

Xi

Xo

Offset Error
Offset

error = output that will exist

when it should be zero

The characteristic curve had the same

sensitive slope but had a y intercept

Output

Output
Input

Zero offset error

Input

Offset Error

Linearity
Linearity

= Extent to which actual

measure curved or calibration
curve departs from ideal curve.

Linearity

Nonlinearity (%) = (Din(Max) / INfs) * 100%

Nonlinearity is percentage of nonlinear

Din(max) = maximum input deviation
INfs = maximum full-scale input
Full Scale Input eal
Id
Output

Din(Max)

e
r
u
eas

Input

Hysteresis

Hysteresis = measurement of how sensor

changes with input parameter based on
direction of change

Hysteresis

The value B can be represented by 2 values of F(x), F1

and F2. If you are at point P then you reach B by the
value F2. If you are at point Q then you reach B by
value of F1.

Output = F(x)

F2

Input = x

F1

B
Q

Response Time

Response Time: Time required for a sensor output to change

from previous state to final settle value within a tolerance band of
correct new value denoted in red can be different in rising and
decaying directions

F(t)
100%
70%

Tresponse

Tolerance Band
Rising Response Time

Ton

Time

Response Time

Time Constant: Depending on the source is defined as the amount

of time to reach 0% to 70% of final value. Typically denoted for
capacitors as T = R C (Resistance * Capacitance) denoted in Blue

F(t)
100%
70%

Tresponse

Tolerance Band
Rising Response Time

Ton

Time

Response Time
F(t)

Tdecay

Decaying Response Time

Toff

Time

Convergence Eye Movement the inward

turning of the eyes have a different response
time than divergence eye movements the
outward turning of the eyes which would be
the decay response time

Dynamic Linearity
Measure of a sensors ability to follow rapid
changes in the input parameters. Difference
between solid and dashed curves is the nonlinearity as depicted by the higher order x terms
F(x)* = ax + bx2+cx4+ . . . +K

Output
F(x)
K

m
=
x)
F(

K
+
x

Input X

F(x)* = ax + bx3+cx5+ . . . +K

Output
F(x)
K

m
=
x)
F(

K
+
x

Input X

Dynamic Linearity
Asymmetric = F(x) != |F(-x)| where F(x)* is asymmetric around linear curve F(x) then
F(x) = ax + bx2+cx4+ . . . +K offsetting for K or you could assume K = 0
Symmetrical = F(x) = |F(-x)| where F(x) * is symmetric around linear curve F(x) then
F(x) = ax +bx3 + cx5 +. . . + K offsetting for K or you could assume K =0

Frequency Response of Ideal

and Practical System

When you look at the frequency response of an instrument,

ideally you want a wideband flat frequency response.

Av

Av = Vo/Vi

1.0

Frequency () radians per second

Frequency Response of Ideal

and Practical System
In

practice, you have attenuation of lower

and higher frequencies

Av

Av = Vo/Vi

1.0

0.707

FL
FH
Frequency () radians per second

FL and FH are known as the 3 dB points in voltage systems.

Examples of Filters
Ideal

Filter has sharp cutoffs and a flat

pass band
Most filters attenuate upper and lower
frequencies
Other filters attenuate upper and lower
frequencies and are not flat in the pass
band

Electrodes for Biophysical

Sensing
Bioelectricity:

naturally occurring current

that exists because living organisms
have ions in various quantities

Electrodes for Biophysical

Sensing
Ionic

Conduction: Migration of ionspositively and negatively charge

molecules throughout a region.

Extremely nonlinear but if you limit the region

can be considered linear

Electrodes for Biophysical

Sensing
Electronic

Conduction: Flow of
electrons under the influence of an
electrical field

Bioelectrodes
Bioelectrodes:

class of sensors that

transduce ionic conduction to electronic
conduction so can process by electric
circuits

Used to acquire ECG, EEG, EMG, etc.

Bioelectrodes
3

Types of electrodes:

Surface (in vivo) outside body

Indwelling Macroelectrodes (in vivo)
Microelectrodes (in vitro) inside body

Bioelectrodes
Electrode

Potentials:

Skin is electrolytic and can be modeled as

electrolytic solutions

Metal
Electrode

Electrolytic Solution where Skin is electrolytic and can be

modeled as saline

Electrodes in Solution

Have metallic electrode immersed in

electrolytic solution once metal probe is in
electrolytic solution it:

1.
2.
3.

Discharges metallic ions into solution

Some ions in solution combine with metallic
electrodes
Charge gradient builds creating a potential
difference or you have an electrode potential or
cell potential

Electrodes in Solution

A
++

B
+++

2 cells A and B, A has 2 positive ions

And B has 3 positive ions thus have a
Potential difference of 3 2 = 1 where B
is more positive than A

Electrodes
Two

reactions take place at

electrode/electrolyte interface:

Oxidizing Reaction: Metal -> electrons +

metal ions
Reduction Reaction : Electrons + metal
ions -> Metal

Electrodes

Electrode Double Layer: formed by 2 parallel

layers of ions of opposite charge caused by
ions migrating from 1 side of region or
another; ionic differences are the source of
the electrode potential or half-cell potential
(Ve).
Metal A

Vae Vbe
Electrolytic Solution

Metal B

Electrodes

If metals are different you will have differential

potential sometimes called an electrode offset
potential.

Metal A = gold Vae = 1.50V and Metal B = silver

Vbe = 0.8V then Vab = 1.5V 0.8 V = 0.7V (Table

6-1 in book page 96)
Metal A

Vae Vbe
Electrolytic Solution

Metal B

Electrodes
Two general categories of material
combinations:

Perfectly polarized or perfectly

nonreversible electrode: no net transfer of

charge across metal/electrolyte interface
Perfectly Nonpolarized or perfectly
reversible electrode: unhindered transfer
of charge between metal electrode and the
electrode

Generally select a reversible electrode such as

Ag-AgCl (silver-silver chloride)

Electrode A

Cellular
Resistance

Cellular
Potentials

Rsa
Rc
Mass
Tissue
Resistance

Vd

Rsb

Ionic Conduction

R1a

R
Electrode B

C1a Vea

R= internal resistance of body which is low

Vd = Differential voltage Vd
Rsa and Rsb = skin resistance at electrode A and B

C1b

Vo

Veb

R1b
Electronic Conduction
R1A and R1B = resistance of electrodes
C1A and C1B = capacitance of electrodes

Electrode Potentials cause recording

Problems

cell potential ~ 1.5 V while biopotentials are

usually 1000 times less (ECG = 1-2 mV and
EEG is 50 uV) thus have a tremendous
difference between DC cell potential and
biopotential
Strategies to overcome DC component

Differential DC amplifier to acquire signal thus the DC

component will cancel out
Counter Offset-Voltage to cancel half-cell potential
AC couple input of amplifier (DC will not pass through)
ie capacitively couple the signal into the circuit

Electrode Potentials cause recording

Problems
Strategies

to overcome DC component

Differential DC amplifier to acquire signal thus

the DC component will cancel out

Counter Offset-Voltage to cancel half-cell
potential
AC couple input of amplifier (DC will not pass
through)

Capacitively couple the signal into the circuit

Medical Surface Electrodes

Typical Medical Surface Electrode:

Use conductive gel to reduce impedance between electrode
and skin
Schematic:

Pin-Tip
Connector

Binding Spot
Shielded Wire
Electrode Surface

Medical Surface Electrodes

Have

an Ag-AgCl contact button at top of

hollow column filled with gel

Gel filled column holds actual metallic

electrode off surface of skin and decreases

movement artifact

Typical ECG arrangement is to have 3 ECG

electrodes (2 differentials signals and a
reference electrode)

Problems with Surface

Electrodes
1.
2.
3.

4.

Adhesive does not stick for a long time on sweaty skin

Can not put electrode on bony prominences
Movement or motion artifact significant problem with long term
monitoring results in a gross change in potential
Electrode slippage if electrode slips then thickness of jelly
changes abruptly which is reflected as a change in electrode
impedance and electrode offset potential (slight change in
potential)

Potential Solutions for Surface

Electrodes Problems
1.
2.

Additional Tape
Rough surface electrode that digs past scaly
outer layer of skin typically not comfortable for
patients.

Other Types of Electrodes

Needle Electrodes: inserted into tissue
immediately beneath skin by puncturing skin on an
angle note infection is a problem.
Indwelling Electrodes: Inserted into layers
beneath skin -> typically tiny exposed metallic
contact at end of catheter usually threaded
through patients vein to measure intracardiac
ECG to measure high frequency characteristics
such as signal at the bundle of His

Other Types of Electrodes

EEG Electrodes: can be a needle electrode but

usually a 1 cm diameter concave disc of gold or
silver and is held in place by a thick paste that is
highly conductive sometimes secured by a
headband

Microelectrode
Microelectrode:

measure biopotential at
cellular level where microelectrode
penetrates cell that immersed in an
infinite fluid

Saline.

Microelectrode

Two typical types:

1. Metallic Contact
2. Fluid Filled

Microelectrode Equivalent
Circuit
R1
RS
V1

C1

C2

Vo

RS = Spreading Resistance
of the electrode and is
a function of tip
diameter
R1 and C1 are result of the
effects of electrode/cell
interface
C2 = Electrode Capacitance

Calculation for Resistance Rs

Rs in metallic microelectrodes
without glass coating:
P
Rs
4r

70cm
Rs
4 3.14 0.5 * 104 cm
111 .4 K

where Rs = resistance ohms

()
P = Resistivity of the infinite
solution outside electrode =
70 cm for physiological
saline
r = tip radius ( ~0.5 um for 1
um electrode) = 0.5 x10-4
cm

Calculation for Resistance Rs

Rs of glass coated metallic microelectrode

is 1-2 order of magnitude higher:

2P
Rs
r
Rs

2 3.7cm

3.14 0.1 * 104 cm 3.14 180

13.5M

where Rs = resistance
ohms ()
P = Resistivity of the
infintie solution outside
electrode) = 3.7 cm for 3
M KCl
r = tip radius typically 0.1 u
m = 0.1 x 10-4 cm
= taper angle (~ / 180)

Capacitance of Microelectrode
Capacitance of C2 has units pF/cm
C2

0.55 e
R
ln
r

Where e = dielectric constant which for

glass = 4
R = outside tip radius
r = inside tip radius

Capacitance of Microelectrode

Find C of glass microelectrode if the outer radius is

0.2 um and the inner radius = 0.15 um

0.55 e
C2

R
ln
r

(0.55)(4)
pF
7.7
cm
0.2 m

ln
0.15m

Transducers and other Sensors

Transducers:

sensors and are defined as

a device that converts energy from some
one form (temp., pressure, lights etc) into
electrical energy where as electrodes
directly measure electrical information

Wheatstone Bridge
A

R1

R1
Es +
-

R3

R3

Eo

EC

Es

ED

EC
R2

R2

Eo

ED

R4

R4

Basic Wheatstone Bridge uses one resistor in

each of four arms where battery excites the
bridge connected across 2 opposite resistor
junctions (A and B). The bridge output Eo
appears across C and D junction.

Finding output voltage to a

Wheatstone Bridge

Ex: A wheatstone bridge is excited by a 12V dc source

and has the following resistances R1 = 1.2K R2 = 3 K
R3 = 2.2 K ; and R4 = 5 K ; find Eo

R2
R4


R1 R 2 R 3 R4

Eo Es

3 * 10 3
Eo 12V
3
3
1.2 * 10 3 * 10
5
3
Eo 12V

0.24V
4
.
2
7
.
2

5 * 10 3

2.2 * 10 3 5 * 10 3

Finding output voltage to a

Wheatstone Bridge

A wheatstone bridge is excited by a 12V dc source

and has the following resistances R1 = 1.2K R2 = 3
K R3 = 2.2 K ; and R4 = 5 K ; find Eo

Eo EC E D

R2
EC Es

R
1

R
2

R4

E D Es

R
3

R
4

R2
R4


R1 R 2 R 3 R4

Eo Es

3 * 10 3
Eo 12V
3
3
1
.
2
*
10

3
*
10

5
3
Eo 12V

0.24V
4.2 7.2

5 * 10 3

2.2 * 10 3 5 * 10 3

Null Condition of Wheatstone Bridge

Null

Condition is met when Eo = 0 can

happen in 2 ways:

Battery = 0 (not desirable)

R1 / R2 = R3/ R4

Null Condition of Wheatstone Bridge

When R1 = 2K; R2 = 1K ; R3 = 10K ; R4

= 5K
R2
R4

R1 R 2 R3 R 4
R 2 R3 R 4 R 4 R1 R 2
R 2 * R3 R 2 * R 4 R 4 * R1 R 4 * R 2
R 2 * R3 R 4 * R1
R1 R3

R2 R4
2 K 10 K

2
1K 5 K

Null Condition of Wheatstone Bridge

Key with null condition is if you change one of

the resistances to be a transducer that
changes based on input stimulus then Eo will
also change according to input stimulus

Strain Gauges
Definition:

resistive element that changes resistance

proportional to an applied mechanical strain

Strain Gauges

Compression = decrease in length by L and

an increase in cross sectional area.
L = length

Rest Condition

L - L = length

Compression

Strain Gauges

Tension = increase in length by L and a

decrease in cross section area.
L = length

Rest Condition

L + L = length

Tension

Resistance of a metallic bar is

given in length and area

where

pL

R
A

R = Resistance units = ohms ()

= resistivity constant unique to type of

material used in bar units = ohm meter (m)

L = length in meters (m)
A = Cross sectional area in meters2 (m2 )

Resistance of a metallic bar is

given in length and area

Example: find the resistance of a copper bar that has a cross

sectional area of 0.5 mm2 and a length = 250 mm note the resistivity
of copper is 1.7 x 10-8m

L
R 1.7 *10 8 m
A

1m
250mm

1000mm 0.0085
2
1m
2
0.5mm 1000mm

Piezoresistivity

Piezoresistivity = change in resistance for a

given change in size and shape denoted as h

L L

Resistance in tension = R h

A A

Resistance increases in tension

L = length; L = change in L; = resistivity
A = Area; A = change in A

L L

Resistance in compression = R h
A A

Resistance decreases in compression

L = length; L = change in L; = resistivity
A = Area; A = change in A

Note: Textbook forgot the in equations 6-28 and 6-29 on page 110

Example of Piezoresistivity
Thin wire has a length of 30 mm and a cross sectional area of 0.01 mm 2 and a resistance of 1.5.
A force is applied to the wire that increases the length by 10 mm and decreases cross sectional area by
0.0027 mm2
Find the change in resistance h.

Note: = resistivity = 5 x 10

-7

Example of Piezoresistivity
L L
R h

A A

R h 5 *10 m

1.5 h 2.74
7

h 1.24

1m
(30 10)mm *
1000mm
1m
2
(0.01 0.0027)mm *

1000mm

Example of Piezoresistivity
Note:

Change in Resistance will be

approximately linear for small changes in
L as long as L<<L.
If a force is applied where the modulus of
elasticity is exceeded then the wire can
become permanently damaged and then
it is no longer a transducer.

Gauge Factor

Gauge Factor (GF) = a method of comparing one

transducer to a similar transducer

Gauge Factor
R
R
GF
L
L

where

GF = Gauge Factor unitless

R = change in resistance ohms ()
R = unstrained resistance ohms ()
L = change in length meters (m)
L = unstrained length meters (m)

Gauge Factor
R
R
GF

L L

Where strain which is unitless

GF gives relative sensitivity of a strain gauge where the

greater the change in resistance per unit length the
greater the sensitivity of element and the greater the
gauge factor.

Example of Gauge Factor

Have a 20 mm length of wire used as a string gauge

and has a resistance of 150 .
When a force is applied in tension the resistance
changes by 2 and the length changes by 0.07 mm.
Find the gauge factor:

150

R
GF

3.71

L 0.07 mm
L

20mm

Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and

Bonded
Unbonded

Strain Gauge : resistance

element is a thin wire of special alloy
stretch taut between two flexible
supports which is mounted on flexible
diaphram or drum head.

Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and

Bonded

When a Force F1 is applied to

diaphram it will flex in a manner that
spreads support apart causing an
increase in tension and resistance that
is proportional to the force applied.
When a Force F2 is applied to
diaphram the support ends will more
close and then decrease the tension in
taut wire (compression force) and
decrease resistance will decrease in
amount proportional to applied force

Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and

Bonded

Bonded Strain Gauge: made by cementing a

thin wire or foil to a diaphragm therefore
flexing diaphragm deforms the element
causing changes in electrical resistance in
same manner as unbonded strain gauge

Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and

Bonded

When a Force F1 is applied to

diaphram it will flex in a
manner that causes an
increase in tension of wire
then the increase in resistance
is proportional to the force
applied.
When a Force F2 is applied to
diaphram that cause a
decrease the tension in taut
wire (compression force) then
the decrease in resistance will
decrease in amount
proportional to applied force

Comparison of Bonded vs. Unbonded

Strain Gauges
1.

2.

Unbonded strain gauge can be built

where its linear over a wide range of
applied force but they are delicate
Bonded strain gauge are linear over a
smaller range but are more rugged

Bonded strain gauges are typically used

because designers prefer ruggedness.

Typical Configurations
A
R1 = SG1
ES +

R3 = SG3
Vo

R2 = SG2

Electrical Circuit

R4 = SG4

Mechanical Configuration

4 strain gauges (SG) in Wheatstone Bridge:

Strain Gauge Example

Using the configuration in the previous slide
where 4 strain gauges are placed in a
wheatstone bridge where the bridge is balanced
when no force is applied,
Assume a force is applied so that R1 and R4 are
in tension and R2 and R3 are in compression.
Derive the equation to depict the change in
voltage across the bridge and find the output
voltage when each resistor is 200 , the change
of resistance is 10 and the source voltage is 10
V

Strain Gauge Example

Derivation:

Circuit
A
R1 = R +h

s
+
C
R2 = R - h

Eo

R2 R4
Eo Es

R
1

R
2
R
3

R
4

R3= R-h

R h
R h


Eo Es

R h R h R h R h
D
h
R h R h
2h
Eo Es

Es

Es
2R
2 R
R
2R

R4 = R +h
10
Eo 10V
0.5V

200

Note: Text book has wrongly stated that tension decreases R and compression increases R on page 112

Transducer Sensitivity
Transducer

Sensitivity = rating that

allows us to predict the output voltage
from knowledge of the excitation
voltage and the value of the applied
stimulus units = V/V*unit of applied
stimulus

Transducer Sensitivity

Example if you have a force transducer calibrated in

grams (unit of mass) which allows calibration of force
transducer then sensitivity denoted as = V/V*g
(another ex = V/V*mmHg)

Transducer Sensitivity
To

calculate Output Potential use the

following equations:

Eo * E * F
where

Eo = output potential in Volts (V)

E = excitation voltage
= sensitivity V/V*g
F = applied force in grams (g)

Transducer Sensitivity

Example: Transducer has a sensitivity of 10 V/V*g,

predict the output voltage for an applied force of 15 g
and 5 V of excitation.

10 V
Eo EF
Vg

5V 15 g 750 V

note book has typo where writes V/V/g for sensitivity

Inductance Transducers

Inductance Transducers: inductance L can be

varied easily by physical movement of a
permeable core within an inductor 3 basic
forms:

Single Coil
Reactive Wheatstone Bridge
Linear Voltage Differential Transformer LVDT:

LVDT:
Diaphragm

AC Excitation

L1

Core

L2

L3

Axis of Motion

External
Load

Capacitance Transducers
Quartz

Pressure Sensors: capacitively

based where sensor is made of fused
quartz
Capacitive Transducers: Capacitance C
varies with stimulus

Capacitive Transducers:

Three examples:

Solid Metal disc parallel to flexible metal diaphragm

separated by air or vacuum (similar to capacitor

microphone) when force is applied they will move
closer or further away.
Stationary metal plate and rotating moveable plate:
as you rotate capacitance will increase or decrease
Differential Capacitance: 1 Moveable metal Plate
placed between 2 stationary Places where you
have 2 capacitors: C1 between P1 and P3 and C2
between P2 and P3 where when a force is applied
to diaphragm P3 moves closer to one plate or vice
versa

Temperature Transducers
3

Common Types:

Thermocouples
Thermistors
Solid State PN Junctions

Thermocouple:

Thermocouple: 2 dissimilar conductor joined

together at 1 end.
The work functions of the 2 materials are different
thus a potential is generated when junction is
heated (roughly linear over wide range)

Thermistors:

Thermistors: Resistors that change their value

based on temperature where

Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) device will

increase its resistance with an increase in

temperature
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) device will
decrease its resistance with an increase in
temperature
Most thermistors have nonlinear curve when plotted
over a wide range but can assume linearity if within a
limited range

BJT = Bipolar Junction Transistor

= invented in 1947
by Bardeen, Brattain and
Schockley of Bell Labs.

Transistor

B = Base
C = Collector
E = Emitter
IE = I B + I C

VCB

VBE

VCE

BJT = Bipolar Junction Transistor

Transistor

rely on the free travel of electrons through

crystalline solids called semiconductors. Transistors
usually are configured as an amplifier or a switch.

Solid State PN Temperature

Transducers
Solid State PN Junction Diode: the
base emitter voltage of a transistor is
proportional to temperature. For a
differential pair the output voltage is:

VBE

KT ln I C1
I

C2

K = Boltzmans Constant = 1.38 x10-23J/K

T = Temperature in Kelvin
IC1 = Collector current of BJT 1 mA
IC2 = Collector current of BJT 2 mA
q = Coulombs charge = 1.6 x10 -19 coulombs/electron

VCC+

VCB

VBE

ccs1

Ic1

Ic2

VBE

VEE-

VCB

VBE

ccs2

Example of temperature transducer

Find the output voltage of a temperature transducer in the

previous slide if IC1 = 2 mA; IC2 = 1 mA and the temperature
is 37 oC

VBE

KT ln I C1
I

C2

VBE

1.38 *10

VBE 0.0185V

23

J / K 37 273 K ln

1.6 *10 19 Coulombs

2mA

1mA

Homework
Read

Chapter 7
Chapter 6 Problems: 1, 3 to 6, 9

Problem 1: resistivity = 1.7 * 10 m

Problem 4: sensitivity = 50 V/(V*mmHg)
Problem 4: 1 torr = 1 mmHg
Problem 6: sensitivity = 50 V/(V*g)
-8

Review

What are two types of sensors?

List 5 categories of error
How do we quantify sensors?
What is an electrode?
How do you calculate Rs and C2 of a microelectrode that is metal
with and without glass coating?
What is a transducer?
What is a Wheatstone Bridge? How do you derive the output voltage
Find resistance of a metallic bar for a given length and area
How does resistance change in tension and in compression and how
do you calculate resistance

Review

How do you find resistance change in piezoresistive device

How do you determine gauge factor
What is the definition of a strain gauge and what is difference
between bonded and unbonded strain gauge.
Determine the output potential given a transducers sensitivity.
What are inductance, capacitance, and temperature transducers?
How do you calculate the temperature for a solid state PN Junction
Diode?