GENERAL AMPLIFIER

CONCEPTS
Engr. Jomer V. Catipon
jvcatipon@yahoo.com
0928 6654227
By the end of the discussion, the student must be able to:

1.Differentiate linear electronics from digital electronics.

2.Define amplifier and ideal amplifier.
3.Define an ideal source and a dependent source.
4.Enumerate the different dependent sources.
5.Draw the block diagram of a complete amplifier model
utilizing the VCVS.
6.Define gain, power gain, voltage gain and current gain.
7.Explain the relationships of dB power, voltage and current
gains.
8.Explain the relationship between decibel loss and decibel
gain.
9.Explain the effect of input and output loads to the voltage
gain of an amplifier.
10.Derive the gain formula for a cascaded amplifier.
11. Solve worded problems regarding gain.
12. Derive equations for particular circuits.
13. Design circuits given particular conditions.
 I will praise the name of
God with a song,
and will magnify him with
thanksgiving.
- Psalm 69:30
LINEAR VS DIGITAL ELECRONICS

1.DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
– is concerned with all phases of electronics in
which signals are represented in terms of finite number
of digits, the most common of which is the binary
system.
- Includes all arithmetic computations on such
numbers, as well as associated logic operations.

2.LINEAR ELECTRONICS
- is concerned with all phases of electronics in
which signals are represented by continuous or analog
variables.
- includes all signal-processing functions (for
example, amplification) associated with such signals.
Actually the term linear is a misnomer since many of the
circuits is classified as such are non linear in nature.

On a slightly humorous vein, a better term might be non-

digital electronics to indicate that a large percentage of
electronic applications other than digital are often classified
under the category of linear electronics.

However, the classification term linear electronics has

become so embedded within the electronics industry that its
usage will no doubt continue.

The nonlinear circuits are classified in this category.

One of the most important application of linear
electronics is amplification.

This operation was one of the very earliest applications

of electronic devices, and still remains essential
operation in virtually all phases of the industry.
AMPLIFIER
An amplifier uses a small input signal to create a large
output signal, while minimizing distortion of the waveform.

Amplifiers are used for both electrical and optical signals.

1. Weak-signal amplifiers
- are used primarily in wireless receivers, also employed
in acoustic pickups, audio tape players, and compact disc
players.
- are designed to deal with exceedingly small input
signals, in some cases measuring only a few nanovolts
(units of 10-9 volt).
- must generate minimal internal noise while increasing
the signal voltage by a large factor.
- The most effective device for this application is the field-
effect transistor.

The specification that denotes the effectiveness of a

weak-signal amplifier is sensitivity, defined as the number
of microvolts (units of 10-6 volt) of signal input that
produce a certain ratio of signal output to noise output
(usually 10 to 1).
2. Power amplifiers

- are used in wireless transmitters, broadcast

transmitters, and hi-fi audio equipment.
- The most frequently-used device for power amplification
is the bipolar transistor. However, vacuum tubes, once
considered obsolete, are becoming increasingly popular,
especially among musicians. Many professional
musicians believe that the vacuum tube provides
superior fidelity.
TWO IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS
IN POWER AMPLIFICATION

1.Power output - is measured in watts or kilowatts.

2.Efficiency - is the ratio of signal power output to total
power input (wattage demanded of the power supply or
battery).
-This value is always less than 1. It is typically expressed as
a percentage.
- In audio applications, power amplifiers are 30 to 50
percent efficient.
- In wireless communications and broadcasting transmitters,
efficiency ranges from about 50 to 70 percent.

In hi-fi audio power amplifiers, distortion is also an important

factor. This is a measure of the extent to which the output
waveform is a faithful replication of the input waveform.
IDEAL AMPLIFIER

- will pass the input signal through to the output undistorted

but enlarged (gain set by user), with no delay. It will not be
affected by the output impedance of the source (sensor).
In addition the ideal amplifier will be able to drive any load:
supply any current.

No real amplifier is ideal, but an op amp can come close,

at least with regard to gain at low frequency.

The typical IC op amp has an open loop gain of 106 and a

low frequency input impedance of about 1012 ohms.
Amplifiers in any system form are often represented by a
block diagram such as shown below.

The input voltage signal is denoted as Vi(t) and the

output voltage signal is denoted as Vo(t). The quantity t
refers to time. And the functions Vi(t) and Vo(t) represent
the fact that both voltages are functions of time.
Input and output signal of an IDEAL AMPLIFIER
VOLTAGE GAIN, A

GAIN - ratio of the output signal to the input signal. The

signal may be in the form of current for current gain (Ai, β
or ά), power for power gain (Ap or G), or voltage for
voltage gain (A or Av).

A = Vo(t) / Vi(t)

And Vo(t) = A Vi(t)

If the amplifier is not perfectly linear, the equation will no

longer be correct. The equation assumes that the amplifier
is ideal.
EXAMPLE 1

The voltage gain ofr an essentially linear amplifier is

determined from oscilloscope. The waveforms are shown
below. Determine the voltage gain.
ANSWER:

A = output voltage / input voltage

= (2 V/division)(3 divisions) / (0.05 V/division)(4 divisions)
A = 30
SOURCE MODELS

All sources of electrical energy can be represented in

terms of either voltage sources or current sources.

Ideal Voltage Source and Ideal Current Source

IDEAL SOURCES – their values are independent of any
external loads connected to the devices.

IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE

-Assumed to generate a voltage Vs, which is independent

of the current flowing through the source. The (+) and (-)
terminals show the respective positive and negative
terminals for the voltage.
-Have zero internal resistance

IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE

-Assumed to generate a current Is, which is independent of

the voltage across the source. The arrow indicates the
assumed positive reference direction for the current.
-Have infinite internal resistance
Practical sources may be modeled b a combination of an
ideal source and one or more passive circuit components.
In a wide variety of situations, at relatively low frequencies,
the passive component is resistance.

Thevenin and Norton Models for more practical sources

Either of the models may be used to represent a practical
source provided that the only significant passive circuit
parameter is resistance.

Is = Vs/ Rs

And

Vs = Is Rs
EXAMPLE 2

The open circuit voltage of a transducer output is 80 mV.

The equivalent output resistance is 2 kohms. Determine
two circuit models for the source.
ANSWER:

Is = Vs/Rs
= 80 mV / 2 kohms
= 40 μA
CONTROLLED-SOURCE MODELS

There are four possible combinations of input – output

control, and all of these occur in actual systems:

1. Voltage- controlled voltage source

2. Voltage- controlled current source
3. Current – controlled voltage source
4. Current- controlled current source
1. VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED VOLTAGE SOURCE (VCVS)

- The most common combination

- A is the voltage gain
2. VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED CURRENT SOURCE (VCIS)

-The value of the current at the output is io = gm Vi

- gm is the transconductance of the device, in Siemens S
3. CURRENT- CONTROLLED VOLTAGE SOURCE (ICVS)

- The value of the voltage at the output is Vo = Rm Ii

- Rm is the transresistance of the device, in ohms.
4. CURRENT- CONTROLLED CURRENT SOURCE (ICIS)

- The value of the output current is io = βii

- Β is the current gain
COMPLETE AMPLIFIER SIGNAL MODEL

Block diagram of a linear amplifier and a common form of a signal

model utilizing a VCVS
INPUT IMPEDANCE

- Is the effective impedance across the two input terminals

as seen by a signal source

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE

- Is the impedance portion of the Thevenin or Norton

equivalent circuit as viewed at the output terminals.

VOLTAGE GAIN

- output signal voltage/ input signal voltage

EXAMPLE 3

A certain amplifier is characterized by the following

properties: Ri = 1 500 ohms, Ro = 250 ohms, and the
open circuit voltage gain is 50. Draw the equivalent circuit
model for the amplifier.
ANSWER:
INPUT AND OUTPUT LOADING EFFECTS

Connection of an amplifier to a signal source and load

 NET VOLTAGE GAIN FROM THE OPEN-CIRCUIT
VOLTAGE TO THE OUTPUT LOAD VOLTAGE, Aso

From the input circuit,

From the output circuit,

Substituting equation 1 to equation 2,

Rearranging the terms,
 CASCADE LOADING EFFECTS

Cascade connection of two amplifier stages to a signal source and load

The voltage Vi1 at the input of stage 1 is:

The voltage Vi2 at the input of the second stage is:

Then the output voltage across the load is:

Dividing both sides by Vs,

Rearranging the terms,

EXAMPLE 4
A certain amplifier is characterized by the following
properties: Ri = 1 500 ohms, Ro = 250 ohms, and the open
circuit voltage gain is 50 is connected between a source
and a load. Rs = 150 ohms and RL = 100 ohms.

a. Determine the net loaded voltage gain between the

open circuit source voltage and load resistance.
b. Given that the open-circuit source voltage is 0.2 V,
determine the amplifier input voltage, open circuit output
voltage, and the output voltage under loaded conditions.
ANSWER:

a.Aso = 12.99

b.Vi = 0.1818 V
Vo open circuit = 9.09 V
Vo loaded circuit = 2.958 V
POWER GAIN, G

is defined as:

G = Po/ Pi

DECIBEL GAIN COMPUTATIONS

Decibel gain and loss relationships are widely used in
analyzing and specifying linear amplifier circuits.

The decibel power gain GdB in decibels is defined by:

GdB = 10 log10G = 10 log10 (Po/Pi)

Assuming that Po is delivered to an RL and that input impedance
is Rin,

Note that:

Then,

Assuming that RL = Rin

Thus, a factor of 10 appears in decibel computation
involving power gain and a factor of 20 appears when
voltage and current gains are used.

Power input and output comparison for a linear amplifier

DECIBEL VOLTAGE GAIN

When two or more stages are connected in cascade,

decibel measures are particularly convenient to use in
dealing with combination

Cascaded amplifier connection

The net voltage gain is determined in absolute form as
the product of all the individual gains.

The decibel gain is:

The net decibel gain is the sum of the individual decibel

gains for the different stages.
When the output voltage is less than the input voltage, the
decibel voltage gain is negative.

A negative voltage gain should not be confused with

negative linear gain. The former corresponds to the
reduction of the signal level through the circuit, while the
latter corresponds to an inversion of the polarity.
Voltage gains and their equivalents
DECIBEL VOLTAGE LOSSES
For voltage divider networks, it is usually more
convenient to work with losses rather than gains.

Negative gain, therefore is a positive loss and Positive

gain is a negative loss.
EXAMPLE 5

Determine the decibel gain of the complete amplifier circuit

by combining the decibel gain of the amplifier with the
decibel losses of the input and output circuits.
ANSWER:

άi dB = 2.5 dB

άo dB = 1.94 dB

Aso dB = 29.54 dB
FREQUENCY RESPONSE CONSIDERATIONS
All linear circuits have frequency-limiting characteristics.

PHASORS
The complex impedance Z is defined as:

Z = V/I

Since Z is complex,

Z = R + jX

R is the resistance and X is the reactance.

Y is admittance. Y = I/V = 1/ Z

Admittance Y,

Y = G + jB

G is the conductance and B is the susceptance.

THE THREE BASIC CIRCUIT PARAMETERS IN
COMPLEX IMPEDANCES
The radian frequency, ω in radians per second is related to
the cyclic frequency f by:

Resistance is represented by:

Zc = 1/jwC

And ZL = jwL
TRANSFER FUNCTION

A complex function H (jω) can be defined as:

The transfer function H(j ω) is called the steady-state

transfer function for the circuit. The steady state transfer
function is a generalization of the gain to the case where
frequency-dependent elements are present, and it
provides a mathematical basis for the output/input ratio.

Since H(j ω) is a complex function, it can be represented in

polar form as:
M(ω) = /H(jω)/ is the magnitude or amplitude of the
complex function, and Ө(ω) is the phase shift for the
same function .

Development of steady-state transfer function concept

RECITATION

1. Type of amplifier that is used primarily in wireless

receivers, also employed in acoustic pickups, audio tape
players, and compact disc players.
A. Weak signal
B. Power
C. Ideal
D. Signal
RECITATION

2. A/n _____ uses a small input signal to create a large

output signal, while minimizing distortion of the
waveform.
A. Amplifier
B. Transformer
C. Attenuator
D. Buffer
RECITATION

3. In a VCIS, gm is the ____ .

A. Transconductance
B. Current gain
C. Transresistance
D. Voltage gain
RECITATION

4. For two amplifiers in cascade, which of the following

relationships is false?
A. At = A1 + A2
B. At dB= 20 log A1 + 20 log A2
C. Aso = ILF X A1 X IFBS X A2 X OLF
D. At dB = 20 log (A1A2)
RECITATION

5. Which of the following is False about transfer functions?

A. It is a generalization of the gain to the case where
frequency-dependent elements are present
B. It provides a mathematical basis for the output/input
ratio.
C. H(jώ) = M(ώ) Ө(ώ) where M(ώ) is the amplitude
response and Ө(ώ) is the phase response.
D. None of the above
6. Differentiate linear electronics from digital electronics.
7. Define amplifier and ideal amplifier.
8. Define an ideal source and a dependent source.
9. Enumerate the different dependent sources.
10. Draw the block diagram of a complete amplifier model
utilizing the VCVS.
11. Define gain, power gain, voltage gain and current gain.
12.Explain the relationships of dB power, voltage and current
gains.
13.Explain the relationship between decibel loss and decibel
gain.
14.Explain the effect of input and output loads to the voltage
gain of an amplifier.
15.Derive the gain formula for a cascaded amplifier.
SEATWORK 1

I. ANALYSIS PROBLEMS:

1.A signal source having an open-circuit voltage of 30 mV

and an internal output resistance of 2.5 kohms is connected
to the input of the amplifier circuit (with Ri = 5 kohms, Ro =
100 ohms, open circuit voltage gain is 200) and a 300
ohms resistive load is connected across the output.
a. Draw the complete equivalent circuit.
b. Calculate the net loaded voltage gain Aso
between the open circuit source voltage and the load.
c. Calculate the amplifier input and output voltages
from the circuit model under loaded conditions.
d. Use the result of part (b) to predict the output
voltage directly and compare it with the result obtained in
(c).
2. Two linear amplifier circuits are connected in cascade,
and the source and load are connected as shown below:

a. Draw the complete equivalent circuit.

b. Calculate the net loaded voltage gain Aso between the
open-circuit source voltage and the load.
c. For Vs = 40 mV, determine Vi1, Vi2 and Vo from the
circuit model.
d. Use the result of part (b) to predict the output voltage
directly, and compare it with the value obtained in part
(c).
II. DERIVATION PROBLEM:

3. Assume that an amplifier circuit is matched at both input

and output; that is, the source internal resistance is equal
to the input resistance, and the load resistance is equal to
the output resistance. Show that the loaded gain is:

Aso = A/4
ASSIGNMENT 1

I. DESIGN PROBLEMS:
1. A certain amplifier is to be selected to amplify the
signal between a 1 kohms resistance source and a 5
kohms load. If the signal loss due to loading effects at
each end is not to exceed 0.5 dB( that is 1 dB in total),
determine:
a. the minimum value of input impedance
b. the maximum value of output impedance.
2. A certain amplifier with an adjustable gain A is to be
placed between a 500 ohm resistive source and a 2
kohms resistive load. The input and output impedances of
the amplifier are 1.5 kohms and 500 ohms respectively.
The open circuit source voltage is 50 mV, and it is desired
to establish 4V across the load. Determine the required
value of A.
II. RESEARCH:

3. Bode plot

4. One pole low – pass model of amplifiers

RC Low-pass Circuit
Break-point approximations
END