Advanced Instrumentation

Course contents

Sensors and types

Introduction to MEMS
Transducers
Signal conditioning circuits
Data acquisition and transmission
Biomedical instrumentation
Integrated, Intelligent and smart sensors
Electronic nose
Real world interfacing

Sensors and Transducers

Sensor
Device that detects a change in a physical stimulus
and turns it into a (electrical) signal which can be
measured or recorded. Eg Bimetallic strip, Light
Dependent Resistors, Hg in glass thermometer etc

Actuator
Converts electrical or pneumatic signal to some
kind of motion. Eg, solenoid actuator

Transducer
Device that transfers power from one system to
another in the same or in the different form. Eg.
Weighing machine, electric motor

Classification of the sensors

Active and Passive
Active: Input excitation is required (Electrical,
Pneumatic, Hydraulic etc)
Example : potentiometer as displacement sensor
Passive: Input excitation is not required
Example : Mercury Thermometer
Null and Deflection Type
Null : Balancing a bridge to find resistance
Passive: Finding the defection due to resistance
change in bridge circuit

Classification of the sensors

Monitoring and Transmitting Type
Monitoring: eg; Mercury thermometer
Transmitting: eg; Thermocouple
Current (4 mA to 20 mA) should be transmitted
but not voltage. A transmitter is used to convert
any signal into current signal.

Analog and Digital Type

Analog: Output varies continuously, infinite
position for the pointer
Digital: Output varies in discrete form. Finite
number of positions

Static Characteristics of Instruments

1) Span & Range
Range : High measurement possible
Span : Difference between max. and min
E.g. Thermocouple (700 0C to 1200 0C)
Ammeter (0 to 10 A)

measurement possible

2) Mean, Spread & Standard deviation

Mean : Average values of the same measurement

X mean

x1 + x 2 + x 3 + x n n x i
=
=
n
i=1 n

Static Characteristics continued

Spread : Deviation from mean d i = (x i x mean )
Standard deviation * :
d12 + d 2 2 + d 32 + d n 2
=
=
n -1

3) Accuracy

d 2i

i=1 n -1
n

It is the closeness with which an instrument

reading approaches the true value of the quantity
measured
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessel%27s_correction

Static Characteristics continued

It is specified in terms of inaccuracy or limits of error
1) Point accuracy. e.g. nonlinear scale ammeter
2) Percentage of Full Scale (10 V 5% voltmeter)
3) Percentage of true value (Default)
Instrument classification: Class-n means n% accurate

Precision class instruments: Class 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5

Laboratory instruments: Class 1 and Class 2
Commercial class instruments: Class 5 and Class10
Manufacturer also guarantee the instruments for time duration

Static Characteristics continued

4) Precision: The degree to which repeated measurements
show the same results

Repeatability the variation arising when all

efforts are made to keep conditions constant by
using the same instrument and operator, and
repeating during a short time period

Reproducibility the variation arising using

the same measurement process among different
instruments and operators, and over longer time
periods

Example for Precision & Accuracy

Targeting a bull's-eye

Accurate but less Precise

Precise but less Accurate

Significant digits/figures
Precision are commonly expressed by means
of significant figures

Rules
1)(a) Non zero digits (b) zeros in between
non zeros (c) zeros with decimal point are
significant
2)Trailing zeros (without decimal), leading
zeros are not significant

10

Assignment-1
1) How many significant number does each of the
following numbers have
0.00305

3.0500

305000

305.

3.05105

100.12

100

1.00

2) Multimeter reads 1.24 k and other 0.80 k

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Resolution and Sensitivity

Resolution: The smallest detectable incremental
change of the input parameter that can be detected
in the output signal. Eg; Scale, Multi range meters
Expressed either as a proportion of the reading
OR
Absolute values

Sensitivity: For an instrument or sensor with input x

and output y. Sensitivity = dy/dx
OR
Minimum input of physical parameter that will create a
detectable output change. Eg; Ammeter(2A,100 div, 90o)

Practical and Theoretical Parameters

 Static Sensitivity: The slope of static calibration curve

evaluated at the input value

Mistakes and Errors

No mistake in direct measurement. Data processing
causes mistakes
E.g. 1) Measuring resistance passing 3 A current
and voltmeter reads 1 V
2) Adding three reading of ammeter with
different significant figures after decimal
13

Rounding (IEEE Standard 754)

Rounding to nearest
1)Round to nearest, ties to even rounds to the
nearest value; if the number falls midway it is rounded
to the nearest value with an even (zero) least
significant bit, which occurs 50% of the time; this is
the default algorithm for binary floating-point and the
recommended default for decimal
2)Round to nearest, ties away from zero rounds to
the nearest value; if the number falls midway it is
rounded to the nearest value above (for positive
numbers) or below (for negative numbers)
14

Assignment-2
1) Round off 0.25 to one significant digit using the two
methods suggested in IEEE Standards. Compute
the result obtained by dividing by 2. Compare the
computational errors

15

Calibration
It is a procedure that involve a comparison of the
particular instrument with either
1) a primary standard
2) a secondary standard (higher accuracy than the
instrument to be calibrated)
3) known output

16

Dead zone/space and Dead time

Dead space: The largest of a measured variable
for which the instrument does not respond
Cause: friction in mechanical measurement
system
Dead time: The time before the instrument
begins to respond after the measured
quantity has been changed.
E.g: Camera, Data acquisition card, Ammeter
17

Hysteresis
It refers to the difference
between upscale sequence
of calibration and downscale
sequence of calibration
he=({y}upscale-{y}downscale)x=x1

E.g. Potentiometer used as

displacement sensor with
significant losses

Fig. Internal force verses extension

of
a
rubber
band
follows
hysteresis. External force is in
opposition to internal force

Hysteresis error = [he(max)/FSOR] 100

FSOR : Full Scale Output Reading

18

Linearity

If input-output relationship is a straight line passing

through origin
Calibration easy
Uniform sensitivity
Nonlinearity cause lot of
problem during signal
conditioning even though it is
more accurate in some cases
E.g. LVDT (linear)
Thermistor (Non-linear)

y(Max. deviation)
%Nonlinearity =
100
Y(FSOR)

19

Tolerance
Maximum deviation of a manufactured component
from some specified value.

Tolerance

Colour

1%

brown

2%

red

5%

gold

10%

silver

Input Impedance
At the input of each component in a measuring
system, there exists a variable xi1 and at the same
point, there is associated with another variable xi2
such that the product has the dimensions of power
V
For electrical parallel measurements
Z
I
For electrical series measurements. E.g Ammeter
For other measurements. E.g. Tachometers,
Thermometer

Similarly Output Impedance

Bias
A constant error exists over the full range of
measurement of an instrument.
This can removed easily E.g. Zero Error

Drift
Change of some static characteristics of a measuring
system due to variations in ambient temperature,
pressure etc.
Instruments are calibrated under controlled conditions
E.g. Sensitivity drift, Zero drift.
Zero drift of voltmeter due to temperature change can
be expressed in volts/0C