Life Span Development

Developmental Psychology
The study of age-related changes
in behavior and mental processes
from conception to death.

Major Issues
Nature vs. Nurture
Maturationdevelopment governed by
automatic, genetically predetermined
signals
Critical Perioda period of special
sensitivity to specific types of learning that
shapes the capacity for future
development

Major Issues
Continuity or Stages
Does development happen at a relatively
uniform, continuous pace? Does adult
thinking and intelligence differ from that of
children only quantitatively?
Are there different periods of abrupt
change and rapid growth alternated with
periods of small change and little growth?

Major Issues
Stability or change
Do personal characteristics remain
constant from infancy through adulthood?
Does personality change drastically over
time?

Interactionist perspective

Research Methods
Cross-sectional Methodresearch
design that measures individuals of
various ages at one point in time and
gives information about age differences
Longitudinal Methodresearch design
that measures a single individual or
group of individuals over an extended
period and gives information about age
changes

Advantages/Disadvantages
Cross-sectional
+ Gives information
about age differences
+ Quick
+ Less expensive
+ Typically larger sample
- Cohort effects
- Restricted
generalizability

Longitudinal
+ Gives information
about age changes
+ Increased reliability
+ More in-depth
information per
participant
- More expensive
- Time consuming
- Restricted
generalizability

Culture and Development

Culture may be the most important
determinant of development
Human development, like most areas of
psychology, cannot be studied outside
its sociocultural context
Each cultures ethnotheories are
important determinants of behavior
Culture is largely invisible to its
participants

Physical DevelopmentPrenatal
Germinal Periodfirst stage of prenatal
development that begins with conception
and ends with implantation in the uterus
Embryonic Periodsecond stage of prenatal
development that begins after uterine
implantation and lasts through the eighth
week
Fetal Periodthird, and final stage of
prenatal development characterized by rapid
weight gain in the fetus and the fine detailing
of body organs and systems

Prenatal DevelopmentThreats
Teratogenenvironmental agent that causes
damage during prenatal developmentfrom
the Greek teras meaning malformation
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)a
combination of birth defects, including organ
deformities and mental, motor, and/or growth
retardation, that results from maternal
alcohol abuse
Other threats include malnutrition, stress
exposure, exposure to X-rays, and diseases
such as German measles (rubella), herpes,
AIDS, etc.

Physical DevelopmentEarly
Childhood
Brain Developmentby age 2
Brain and nervous system grow faster than any
other part of the body
Brain is about 75% of its adult weight
Synaptic pruning and myelination occur

Motor Development
Child movement develops from reflex to walking

Sensory and Perceptual Development

Senses of smell and hearing are well developed
by birth
Vision reaches near-adult level acuity by age 2

Physical Development
Adolescence and Adulthood
Adolescenceloosely defined period
between childhood and adulthoodsome
cultures do not have this transitional period
Onset of Pubertybiological changes during
adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and
sexual maturity
Primary sexual characteristicsi.e., development
of sex organs, onset of menstruation, ejaculation,
etc.
Secondary sexual characteristicsi.e., growth of
facial and pubic hair, deepening of the voice,
growth of breasts, etc.

Physical Development
Adolescence and Adulthood
Middle Agefor women, primary physical
development is menopause. For men,
physical development is less obvious
decline in production of sperm and
testosterone, weight gain, decline in sexual
responsiveness, muscle strength and
graying or loss of hair.
Late Adulthoodmost changes are gradual
and occur in cardiovascular system and
sensory receptors
Ageismprejudice or discrimination against
an individual based on physical age.

Cognitive Development
Schemacognitive structures or patterns
consisting of a number of organized ideas
that grow and differentiate with experience
Assimilationin Piagets theory,
absorbing new information in to existing
schemas
Accommodationin Piagets theory,
adjusting old schemas or developing new
ones to better fit with new information

Piagets Stage Theory of

Development
Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age 2
years)
Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)
Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-11)
Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 and
up)

Sensorimotor Stage
First stage (birth to approximately age
two) in which schemas are developed
through sensory and motor activities
Object permanenceinfants
understanding that objects (or people)
continue to exist even when they cannot
be seen, heard, or touched directly

Preoperational Stage
Second stage characterized by the
ability to employ significant language
and to think symbolically, but the child
lacks operations (reversible mental
processes), and thinking is egocentric
and animistic
Egocentrismthe inability to consider
anothers point of view
Animismthe belief that all things are
living (or animated)

Concrete Operational Stage

Third stage in which the child can
perform mental operations on concrete
objects and understand reversibility
and conservation, but abstract thinking
is not yet present
Conservationunderstanding that certain
physical characteristics (such as volume)
remain unchanged, even when their
outward appearance changes

Formal Operational Stage

Fourth stage characterized by abstract
and hypothetical thinking
Adolescents in early formal operational
stage demonstrate a type of egocentrism
Personal fableadolescents conclude that
they alone are having certain insights or
difficulties and that no one else would
understand or sympathizethe rules dont
apply to them
Imaginary audienceadolescents picture all
eyes focused on their behaviors

Critique of Piagets Theory

Piaget underestimated the abilities of
children when it comes to cognitive
development
Piagets model, along with other stage
theories, did not sufficiently take into
account genetic and cultural
differences

Information Processing
(computer) Model
Compares the workings of the mind to that of
a computer (remember encoding, storage,
retrieval) focuses on areas of attention and
memory
Attention spanas children develop cognitively,
their attention span increases and they learn to
discriminate between what is and is not important
to concentrate on
Memory, like attention, increases through
childhood and adolescence due to increased
ability to use processing strategies

Social-Emotional Development
Attachmenta strong affectional bond with
special others that endures over time.
John BowlbyAttachment theory

Imprintingan innate form of learning within

a critical period that involves attachment to
the first large moving object seen.
Konrad Lorenzimprinting of baby geese

Harlows monkeyscontact comfort is a

powerful contributor to attachment

Attachment Levels
Mary Ainsworth, et.al., studied levels of
attachment by observing infants in the
presence of their mother and a stranger
Securely attachedmother is safe base from
which to explore the unknown
Avoidantinfant does not seek closeness or
contact with the mother, treats mother much like a
stranger, rarely cries when mother leaves the
room
Anxious/Ambivalentinfant becomes very upset
as mother leaves and seeks close contact when
she returns, however, then squirms angrily to get
away

Attachment Problems/Disorders
May exhibit the following characteristics:
seldom cry, coo or babble, become rigid
when picked up, few language skills
Social-emotionallyfor shallow or anxious
relationships, withdrawn, uninterested in
caregivers OR insatiable need for affection
Intellectual, physical, and perceptual
retardation; increased susceptibility to
infection; isolation

Parenting Styles
Permissive
Permissive-indifferentsets few limits, little
attention, interest or emotional support (children
have poor self-control becoming demanding and
disobedient)
Permissive-indulgenthighly involved but places
few demands or controls on the child (children
fail to learn respect for others becoming
impulsive, immature and out of control

Parenting Styles
Authoritarianrigid and punitive, value
unquestioning obedience and mature
responsibility while remaining aloof and
detached. Children are easily upset, moody,
aggressive, and generally have poor
communication skills
Authoritativetender, caring and sensitive
but set limits and enforce them, encourage
increasing responsibility. Children become
self-reliant, self-controlled and high
achieving. Also, more content, goal-oriented,
friendly and socially competent

Parenting Styles--critique
Child temperamentresults may reflect
childs unique temperamentparents may
develop style based on childs behavior
rather than vice versa
Child expectationshow the child expects
parents to act may affect how s/he responds
Parental warmththis may be the strongest
factor regardless of parenting stylewarmth
vs. rejection.

Moral Development
Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development
Three Levels:
Preconventional LevelKohlberg first level in
which morality is based on rewards, punishment,
and exchange of favors
Conventional LevelKohlbergs second stage
where moral judgments are based on compliance
with the rules and values of society
Postconventional LevelKohlbergs highest level
in which individuals develop personal standards
for right and wrong, and define morality in terms
of abstract principles and values that apply to all
situations and societies

Kohlbergs Stages
Punishment-Obedience Orientation
Instrumental-Exchange Orientation
Good Child Orientation
Law-and-Order Orientation
Social-Contract Orientation
Universal Ethics Orientation

Carol Gilligans Perspective

Justice PerspectiveGilligans term for
moral reasoning based on
independence and individual rights
Care PerspectiveGilligans term for
moral reasoning that emphasizes
interdependence and interpersonal
responsibility

Personality Development
Temperament Theory
Temperamentan individuals innate
behavioral style and characteristic
emotional response
Easy childrenhappy most of the time, relaxed
and agreeable; adjust easily to new situations
Difficult childrenmoody, easily frustrated,
tense and over reactive to most situations
Slow-to-warm-up childrenmild responses,
somewhat shy and withdrawn, and need time
to adjust to new situations or people

Eriksons Psychosocial Theory

Psychosocial StagesEriksons theory
that individuals pass through eight
developmental stages, each involving a
crisis that must be successfully
resolved.

Eriksons Stages 1 & 2

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1)Infants learn to
trust that their needs will be met by the
world, especially by the mother; if not,
mistrust develops
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3)
Toddlers learn to exercise will, to make
choices, to control themselves, if not,
they become uncertain and doubt that
they can do things by themselves

Eriksons Stages 3 & 4

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)Preschool
children learn to initiate activities and
enjoy their accomplishments, if not,
they feel guilty for their attempts at
independence
Industry vs. inferiority (6-12)
Elementary school age children
develop a sense of industry and learn
productive skills their culture requires,
if not, they feel inferior

Eriksons Stages 5 & 6

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-20)
Adolescents develop a coherent sense
of self and their role in society or they
face identity and role confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-30)Young
adults form intimate connections with
others; if not, they face isolation and
consequent self-absorption

Eriksons Stages 7 & 8

Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-65)Middleaged adults develop concern for
establishing, guiding, and influencing the
next generation; if not, they experience
stagnation (a sense of lifelessness)
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+)Older people
enter a period of reflection and life review.
They either achieve a sense of integrity for
the lives theyve lived and accept death, or
yield to despair that their lives cannot be
relived

Grief and Death

Griefa natural and painful reaction to
a significant loss.
Four major stages: numbness, yearning,
disorganization/despair and resolution.

Elizabeth Kbler-Ross proposed a five

stage process of facing death
Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression and
Acceptance