Chapter 2 Chromosomes

and Sexual Reproduction

Basic Cell Types - Prokaryotic

before nucleus
Unicellular
Simple structure
No internal membranes

Eubacteria
true bacteria

Archaea
ancient bacteria
More closely related to
eukaryotes

Basic Cell Types - Eukaryotic

true nucleus
Unicellular or
mutlicellular
Large, complex
Have internal
membranes

Genetic Material
Prokaryotes
Single, circular
chromosome
May have small,
accessory plasmids

Eubacteria
DNA within cytoplasm
(nucleoid region)

Archaea
DNA may have associated
protein (histones), but
different from eukaryotic
chromosomes

Eukaryotes
Multiple, linear
chromosomes
DNA with associated
histone proteins
Chromatin
Chromatin arranged in
specific complex to form
chromosomes
Allows for packaging
within a small nucleus

Genetic Material - Viruses

Protein coat
surrounding nucleic
acid (DNA or RNA)
Not classified as living
organism
Dependent on host
cell for reproduction
Evolved after cells
Closely related to host
Similar genes

Cell Reproduction - Prokaryotic

Binary fission
Origin of replication
Initiation site of DNA
replication

2 DNA molecules move to

opposite ends of cells
Proteins bind near
replication origins and
anchor new DNA
molecules to plasma
membrane

Cell Reproduction - Prokaryotic

New cell wall forms to
produce 2 cells
Identical to each
other, and parent cell
Asexual reproduction

Cell Reproduction - Eukaryotic

Chromosomes
Each species has a
characteristic number
Diploid cell/organism
Has 2 copies of each
chromosome
Homologous
chromosomes
Save same genes at
same locus
May have different
alleles

Haploid cell/organism
One set/one copy of each
chromosome

Chromosome Structure
3 components of a
functional chromosome
Centromere
Attachment point for
microtubules
Kinetochore protein
complex attached

Telomere
Ends of linear
chromosomes
stabilize

Origins of replication
2 identical copies of DNA
= sister chromatids
Held together by
common centromere

Chromosome Classification
Classified by location
of centromere
p arm and q arm
Humans do not have
telocentric
chromosomes

Cell Cycle
Interphase
Extended period of
growth

Mitotic phase
Mitosis
Cytokinesis

Key areas are

regulated at
checkpoints

Interphase
G1

G2

Mitosis
Nuclear Division
5 stages
Prophase

Prometaphase

Mitosis
5 stages cont
Metaphase

Anaphase

Mitosis
5 stages cont
Telophase

Movement of Microtubules

Cytokinesis
Division of cytoplasm
Animal cells cleavage furrow
Plant cells cell plate

Usually occurs simultaneously with telophase

End result of mitosis/cytokinesis is 2 identical
cells
Asexual reproduction

Sexual Reproduction and Genetic

Variation
Meiosis
Creates gametes/sex cells/egg and sperm
Chromosome number is reduced by half
Diploid to haploid

Fertilization
Fusion of egg and sperm to restore diploid condition
Forms diploid, single cell - zygote

Sexual reproduction
1 or 2 parents

Meiosis
One DNA replication followed by two
rounds of division
Meiosis I
Reduces number of chromosomes
Diploid to haploid

Meiosis II
Separates sister chromatids

Meiosis I
Prophase

Meiosis I
Metaphase

Anaphase

Meiosis I
Telophase

Interkinesis
Nuclear envelopes are reformed and spindle breaks
down
Some cells skip to
metaphase II

Cell may or may not split

into two cells

Meiosis II
Prophase

Metaphase

Meiosis II
Anaphase

Telophase

Consequences of Meiosis
End result is 4 haploid cells from one diploid cell
Each is genetically different

Crossing over
Exchange between homologous chromosomes
Sister chromatids are not identical

Random assortment
Shuffles maternal and paternal chromosomes in
different combinations
Metaphase I

Crossing Over and Random

Assortment

Separation during Mitosis

Cohesin holds sister
chromatids together
Established during S
Broken down during
anaphase by separase
Separase is inactive
during Interphase and
early mitosis

Separation during Meiosis

Cohesin aids in formation
of synaptonemal complex
Anaphase I
Cohesin broken down by
separase
Centromeric cohesin is
protected by shugoshin
Keeps sister chromatids
together

Metaphase II
Separase breaks down
shugoshin
Allows separation of sister
chromatids

Meiosis in Animals

Alternation of Generations in Plants