The Biology of

Mind and
Consciousness
CH. 2
R. CAVERA, PSY.D.
Chapter overview
The Biology of Mind and Consciousness
Biology and behavior
Neural communication
The nervous system
The endocrine system
The brain
Brain states and consciousness
Biology and Behavior
Everything psychologicalevery idea, every mood, every urgeis biological

Biological psychologists study the links between biology and behavior

Neural Communication
A neurons structure
How neurons communicate
How neurotransmitters influence us
Neurons Structure
Neuron
Nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Dendrites
Neuron extensions that receive messages and conduct them toward
the cell body
Axon
Neuron extension that ends messages to other neurons or cells
Action potential
Nerve impulse
Glial cells (glia)
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect
neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
Neurons Structure
Synapse
Junction between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the
dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron
Threshold
Level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
All-or-none response
Neurons reaction of either firing (with a full-strength
response) or not firing
Neurotransmitters
Neuron-produced chemicals that cross synapses to carry
messages to other neurons or cells
A Typical Neuron
How Neurons Communicate

IF excitatory Inhibitory
MINUS
signals signals

THEN
EXCEED Combined Lets look more
threshold signals closely at this
trigger action process on the
potential next slide.
How Neurons Communicate
How Neurotransmitters Influence
Us:

Neurotransmitters have their own pathways which deliver

specific messages that influence behavior and emotions
Some Neurotransmitters and Their
Functions
The Nervous System
Nervous system
The bodys speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve
cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems
Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the
body
Types of Neurons
Sensory neurons
Carry messages from the bodys tissues and sensory receptors inward to your spinal cord
and brain for processing
Motor neurons
Carry instructions from your central nervous system out to the bodys muscles
Interneurons within brain and spinal cord
Communicate with one another and process information between the sensory input and
motor output
The Functional Divisions of the Human
Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System
Two parts with subdivisions
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
 Autonomic
Nervous
System
Subdivisions
Sympathetic
subdivision arouses
and expends energy

Parasympathetic
subdivision calms and
conserves energy,
allowing routine
maintenance activity

The autonomic nervous

system arouses and calms
The Central Nervous System

Adult brain has about 86 billion neurons (Azevedo et al., 2009)

Brain accounts for about 2 percent of body weight and uses 20 percent of energy
Neural networks and pathways govern reflexes through highly efficient
electrochemical information system
The Endocrine System
Glands secrete chemical messengers through the bloodstream to target
tissue
Adrenal glands influence fight-or-flight response
Pituitary gland, controlled by hypothalamus, releases hormones and sends
messages to other endocrine glands to release their hormones
Growth and sex hormones
Oxytocin
The
Endocrine
System

FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Brain pituitary
other glands
hormones
body and brain

This reveals the

interplay between the
nervous and
endocrine systems
The Brain
Older brain structures
The cerebral cortex
Our divided brain
Older Brain Structures
Less complex brain in primitive vertebrates handles basic survival functions
More complex brain in advanced mammals (including humans) contains new brain
systems built on the old

imagebroker / Alamy
The Brainstem
Brainstem
Oldest and
innermost brain THE BODYS CROSS-
region WIRING
Nerves from one side of
Medulla the brain are mostly
Located at base linked to the bodys
of the brainstem; opposite side.
controls
heartbeat and
breathing
Andrew Swift
Pons
Sits above
medulla and
The Brainstem and Thalamus

The brainstem, including the medulla and pons, is an

extension of your spinal cord. The thalamus is attached to its
top. The reticular formation passes through both structures.
The Brain
Thalamus
Area at the top of the brainstem; directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits
replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Reticular formation
Nerve network running through the brainstem and thalamus; plays an important role in
controlling arousal
 The Cerebellum
Aids in judgment of time, sound and texture discrimination,
and emotional control

Coordinates voluntary movement and life-sustaining functions

Helps process and store information outside of awareness

THE BRAINS ORGAN OF AGILITY

Hanging at the back of the brain,
the cerebellum coordinates our
voluntary movements.
The Limbic System
Limbic system
Neural system that sits
between the brains older parts
and its cerebral hemispheres
Includes hippocampus,
amygdala, and hypothalamus
Hypothalamus controls the nearby
pituitary gland
Associated with emotions and
drives
Electrical stimulation of a cats
amygdala provokes reactions
such as the one shown here,
suggesting its role in emotions
such as rage
The Limbic System
Amygdala
Consists of two lima-bean-
sized neural clusters in the
limbic system; linked to
emotion
Hypothalamus
Neural structure lying below
the thalamus
Directs several maintenance
PAIN FOR PLEASURE This rat has an electrode
activities implanted (crazy, I know) in a reward center of
Helps govern endocrine its hypothalamus. It will cross an electric grid,
system via the pituitary accepting painful shocks, in order to press a
gland, and is linked to lever that sends impulses to its reward center.
emotion and reward
Brain Structures and Their
Functions
The Cerebral Cortex
Functions of the Cortex

Motor cortex
Fritsch and Hitzig: Discovered motor cortex
Forester and Penfield: Mapped motor cortex and discovered body areas requiring precise
control and the mouth occupied the most cortical space
Motor functions
Electrically stimulating the motor cortex can cause body part movement
Functions of the Motor Cortex

Left hemisphere tissue devoted to each body part in the motor cortex and the
somatosensory cortex
Functions of the Cortex
Sensory functions
Somatosensory cortex processes information from skin senses and body part
movement

WATCHING THE BRAIN IN

ACTION As this person looks
at a photo, the fMRI
(functional MRI) scan shows
increased activity (color
represents more blood flow)
in the visual cortex in the
occipital lobes. When the
person stops looking, the
region instantly calms down.
Functions of the Cortex

Sensory functions
The visual cortex of the
occipital lobes at the rear of
your brain receives input from
your eyes
The auditory cortex, in your
temporal lobesabove your
earsreceives information
from your ears

THE VISUAL CORTEX AND

AUDITORY CORTEX
AREAS OF THE CORTEX IN FOUR MAMMALS

More intelligent animals have increased

uncommitted or association areas of the
cortex
These vast brain areas interpret, integrate, and
act on sensory information and link it with
stored memories
Functions of the Cortex
Association areas of the cortex
Are found in all four lobes
Found in the frontal lobes; enables judgment, planning, and processing of new memories
Damage to association areas
Result in different losses

Lets take a closer look a one case.

The Brains Plasticity
Brain damage effects
Severed neurons, unlike cut skin,
usually do not repair themselves
Some brain functions seem forever
linked to specific areas
Brain damage effects
Some brain tissue can reorganize in
response to damage
Plasticity sometimes occurs after
serious damage, especially in young
Former US Representative Gabby Giffords
children
recovery demonstrates the ability of the brain
to adapt, heal and recovery functioning following
a traumatic event.
Plasticity
Brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by
building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis
Formation of new neurons
Corpus callosum
Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying
messages between them
Our Divided Brain
Split brain hemisphere
Isolated by cutting the fibers
(mainly those of the corpus
callosum) connecting them
Intact brain
Data received by either hemisphere
are quickly transmitted to the other
side, across the corpus callosum
Severed corpus callosum
brain
This information sharing does not THE INFORMATION HIGHWAY
take place FROM EYE TO BRAIN
 THE CORPUS CALLOSUM

This large band of neural fibers connects the two brain hemispheres. To
photograph the half brain shown at left, a surgeon separated the
hemispheres by cutting through the corpus callosum and lower brain
regions. In the view above, brain tissue has been cut back to expose the
corpus callosum and bundles of fibers coming out from it.
Testing the Divided Brain
Right-Left Differences in Intact
Brains
Each hemisphere performs distinct functions. Humans have unified brains
with specialized parts.
Left hemisphere is good at making quick, exact interpretations of language.
Right hemisphere excels in high-level language processing.
Brain States and Consciousness
Consciousness
Awareness of self and environment
Selective attention
Focusing conscious awareness on a
particular stimulus
Inattentional blindness
Failure to see visible objects when our
attention is directed elsewhere
Sleep and Dreams
Biological rhythms
24-hour biological clock
90 minute sleep cycle
Circadian rhythm
Internal biological clock of 24-hour cycle of day and night
Altered by age and experience
REM (rapid eye movement)
Recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
REM rebound
Tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
Sleep
Brain waves and sleep
stages
The beta waves of an alert, waking
state and the regular alpha waves
of an awake, relaxed state differ
from the slower, larger delta waves
of deep NREM-3 sleep
Although the rapid REM sleep
waves resemble the near-waking
NREM-1 sleep waves, the body is
more aroused during REM sleep
than during NREM sleep
Sleep
Periodic, natural loss of consciousnessas distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a
coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)

Delta waves
Large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
 REM Sleep
About an hour after first sleeping, REM sleep begins
For about 10 minutes, your brain waves become rapid and
saw-toothed, more like those of the nearly awake NREM-1
sleep.

But unlike NREM-1, during REM sleep your heart rate rises
and your breathing becomes rapid and irregular.
Every half-minute or so, your eyes dart around in a brief
burst of activity behind closed lids. Eye movements
announce the beginning of a dream.
Your brains motor cortex is active during REM sleep, but
your brainstem blocks its messages. Muscles relax and
genitals become aroused.

Sleep cycle repeats itself every 90 minutes.

Stages in a Typical Nights Sleep
Sleep Theories
Possible reasons why sleep evolved
Sleep protects
Sleep helps us recover
Sleep helps us remember
Sleep feeds creative thinking
Sleep supports growth
Sleep Deprivation and Sleep
Disorders
Effects of sleep loss
Slows reactions
Increases errors on visual attention
tasks
Reduced concentration that may lead
to cyber-loafing
Immune system depression
Risk of depression

SLEEPLESS AND SUFFERING These

fatigued, sleep-deprived earthquake
rescue workers in China
may experience a depressed immune
system, impaired concentration, and
greater vulnerability to accidents.
Physical impact of sleep deprivation
CANADIAN TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
On the Monday after the spring time change, when people
lose one hour of sleep, accidents increased, as compared
with the Monday before. In the fall, traffic accidents normally
increase because of greater snow, ice, and darkness, but
they diminished after the time change. (Adapted from Coren,
1996.)
Sleep: Major Disorders
Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
Sleep disorder in which a person has uncontrollable sleep attacks, sometimes lapsing
directly into REM sleep
Sleep apnea
Sleep disorder in which a sleeping person repeatedly stops breathing until blood oxygen is
so low it awakens the person just long enough to draw a breath
Looking for a Better Nights Sleep?

Easy to achieve as a college student, righ

Sleep and Dreaming
Dream
Sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping persons mind
Manifest content
According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
Latent content
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
 To develop
and
preserve
neural To make
To file pathways sense of
away
neural
memories
static

Why To reflect
To satisfy we cognitive
our own
drea developme
wishes
nt
m
Theories of why we dream
Next up: Lifespan
Development
CH. 3