Data and Computer

Communications
Network and Topologies
 A, B, C, D, E, and F are all
Networks end nodes and 1 through 7
are all routers.
C Each end-node is attached
to a router by a link.
2
The end-nodes are actual
B 3
computers.
1 D
The function of a router is
5 only to provide switching
A 4 6 facilities to move the
E
message from one node to
7
Router another node until they
reach their destinations.
F End-node For instance, message is
link
transmitted from source
node A to destination node
D through routers 4, 5, and
Network: end-node and router
3.
 Routing Techniques
Static routing
Routing

Dynamic routing
Static Routing: In static routing, for a given source, destinations
and routes are all predetermined. They are assigned during the
design of a network. For instance, node A can send message to node
D via 4,5, 3 . Node A can also send message to node D via 1, 2, 3.
However, node A cannot send message using the route

A 4 1 2 3 D

Advantage: easy to design and set-up cost is not high

Disadvantage: not very efficient, delay can be very long.
 Dynamic Routing

Dynamic Routing: In dynamic routing, the routes are calculated

when they needed. The routes are not predetermined.
Advantages: more efficient, inherently more fault-tolerant.
Disadvantages: Set-up cost is high and it is fairly complex to design.
 Network Topology: Physical & Logical

The topology of a network defines how the nodes of a network

are connected.
A network is defined by a physical topology and a logical topology.
Physical topology defines how the nodes of the network are
physically connected .
Logical topology dedicated connections between certain selected
source-destination pairs using the underlying physical topology.
In order to have an efficient system, the logical topology should be
chosen such that either the average hop distance or the packet
delay or the maximum flow on any link must be minimal.
Another important issue to select the logical topology is the
simplicity of the routing.
 Multi-hop Network

1

6 1, 2
4, 1
7, 8 1, 7
1 2
4 Star
T4
2
coupler
T 3,

5 3, 4 2 7
6 3

5, 6 2, 8
T
3 4
5
3 8

Physical Topology: 2 X 2 star Logical Topology: 2 X 2 torus

 Physical and Logical Topologies

Node 1 can directly send information to node 2 and node 3

using frequencies and 1 and 2,
where as if node 1 wants to send message to node 4, it has
to multi-hop through either node 2 or node 3.
For this reason, node 1 is directly logically connected to
node 2 and node 3.
Although, node 1 is not directly physically connected to
node 2 and node 3.
Node 1 is not directly logically connected to node 4.
If node 1 node 1 communicates with node 4 via node 2,
there will be a wavelength conversion from 1 to 3 at
node 2.
Types of Networks

Various configurations, called topologies, have been used to administer

LANs
Ring topology A configuration that connects all nodes in a closed loop on
which messages travel in one direction
Star topology A configuration that centers around one node to which all
others are connected and through which all messages are sent
Bus topology All nodes are connected to a single communication line that
carries messages in both directions
Types of Networks

Wide-area network (WAN) A network that connects two or more

local-area networks over a potentially large geographic distance
Often one particular node on a LAN is set up to serve as a gateway to handle
all communication going between that LAN and other networks
Communication between networks is called internetworking
The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially the ultimate wide-area
network, spanning the entire globe
 Types of Networks

Metropolitan-area network (MAN) The communication

infrastructures that have been developed in and around large
cities
Local-area network (LAN) A network that connects a relatively
small number of machines in a relatively close geographical area
So, who owns the Internet?

Well, nobody does. No single person or company owns the Internet or

even controls it entirely. As a wide-area network, it is made up of many
smaller networks. These smaller networks are often owned and
managed by a person or organization. The Internet, then, is really
defined by how connections can be made between these networks.
 Types of Networks

Local-area networks connected across a distance to create a wide-

area network
15-
13 Internet Connections

Internet backbone A set of high-speed networks that carry Internet

traffic
These networks are provided by various companies.
Internet service provider (ISP) A company that provides other
companies or individuals with access to the Internet
Internet Connections

There are various technologies available that you can

use to connect a home computer to the Internet
A phone modem converts computer data into an analog
audio signal for transfer over a telephone line, and then a
modem at the destination converts it back again into data
A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper
phone lines to transfer digital data to and from the phone
companys central office
A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV
signals come in on to transfer the data back and forth
Internet Connections

Broadband A connection in which transfer speeds are faster than 128

bits per second
DSL connections and cable modems are broadband connections
The speed for downloads (getting data from the Internet to your home
computer) may not be the same as uploads (sending data from your home
computer to the Internet)
 Packet Switching
To improve the efficiency of transferring
information over a shared communication line,
messages are divided into fixed-sized, numbered
packets
Network devices called routers are used to direct
packets between networks
Messages
sent by
packet
switching
TCP/IP

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol

TCP software breaks messages into packets, hands them off to the IP software
for delivery, and then orders and reassembles the packets at their destination
IP stands for Internet Protocol
IP software deals with the routing of packets through the maze of
interconnected networks to their final destination
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol
It is an alternative to TCP
The main difference is that TCP is highly reliable, at the cost of decreased
performance, while UDP is less reliable, but generally faster
High-Level Protocols

Other protocols build on the foundation established by the TCP/IP

protocol suite
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Telnet
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (http)
Firewalls

Firewall A machine and its software that serve as a special gateway to

a network, protecting it from inappropriate access
Filters the network traffic that comes in, checking the validity of the messages
as much as possible and perhaps denying some messages altogether
Enforces an organizations access control policy
 Firewalls

Firewall protecting a LAN

Network Addresses

Hostname A unique identification that specifies a particular computer

on the Internet
For example
uaf.edu.pk
microsoft.com
apple.com
Network software translates a hostname into its corresponding IP
address
For example
148.78.250.12
Network Addresses

An IP address can be split into

network address, which specifies a specific network
host number, which specifies a particular machine in that network

An IP address is
stored in four
bytes
Domain Name System

A hostname consists of the computer name followed by the domain

name
uaf.edu.pk is the domain name
A domain name is separated into two or more sections that specify the
organization, and possibly a subset of an organization, of which the computer
is a part
Two organizations can have a computer named the same thing because the
domain name makes it clear which one is being referred to
 Domain Name System
The very last section of the domain is called its top-level domain
(TLD) name

Top-level domains, including some relatively new ones

Domain Name System

Organizations based in countries other than the United States use a top-
level domain that corresponds to their two-letter country codes

Some of the top-level domain

names based on country codes
Domain Name System

The domain name system (DNS) is mainly used to translate

hostnames into numeric IP addresses
DNS is an example of a distributed database
If that server can resolve the hostname, it does so
If not, that server asks another domain name server
 Types of Networks

A bus technology called Ethernet has become

the industry standard for local-area networks
 A bus network topology
Use: This topology is useful
in LANs. It does not rely on
central host.This network can
C1 C2 C3 still function if one of the
computers malfunctions.
Other advantages: easy to
wire, quick response, less
expensive

C6
C5 C4

Problem: The main disadvantage is bad connection to the

cable can bring down the entire network. Another
problem: collision occurs when 2 nodes send messages
simultaneously.
Bus topology
 Bus Network
In bus network, all stations are attached to a single cable.
When a station sends a message, it is broadcast down on
the cable in both directions. Terminators at the end of the
cable prevent the signal from reflecting back to the sender.
All stations on the cable constantly monitor for messages
meant to them. When a station detects a message meant
for it, it reads the message from the cable and the other
stations will ignore it.
Since all stations are sharing the same cable, some form of
control is needed to make sure which station will transmit
when, otherwise there will be a collision.
Advantages: Easy to wire, quick response, less expensive,
and if one station dies, it has no effect on the total network.
Disadvantage: However bad connection to the cable can
short it and bring down the entire network
 A ring network topology
Use: This topology is useful
C1
in LANs. It does not rely on
central host.This network can
still function if one of the
C6 C2 computers malfunctions.

Problems:
C 3The connecting wire, cable,
C5 or optical fiber forms a closed
loop. Data are passed along the
ring from one computer to
C4 another.
Ring Topology
 Ring Network

Ring network consists of nodes that are joined by

point-to-point connection to form a closed loop or
ring.
The transmitted signal is regenerated at each node.
It is a shared-access network and it has the capability
of broadcasting messages.
It needs some form of access control to determine
which node will transmit when.
Advantages
The most important advantage of this network is its
point-to-point connections.
The electronics and maintenance of point-to-point
links are much simpler than multi cast links.
 Ring Network
The structure of this network is very simple and it is very
easy to insert and delete any number of nodes.
For this reason, ring network is easily scalable and highly
modular.
Fault isolation and recovery are much simpler than tree.
Disadvantages:
The disadvantage is it offers only two alternate routes
and thereby it can manage only a single fault.
Another important drawback of ring network is its large
diameter.
If diameter of a network is high, the number of edges
involved in each communication will also be very high
resulting in high signal attenuation and network blocking
probability.
 A star network topology
Use: This topology is
C1
useful for applications
where processing must
be centralized and some
C6 C2 can be performed locally.

Host
CPU
Problems:
C 3 All communication pass
C5 through the central computer.
The communications in the
network will stop if the host
C4 computer stops functioning.
Star topology
 Star Network

In star network, each station is connected via a point-to-

point link to a central point.
This central point is called hub, multi port repeater, or
concentrator.
The central point may be passive, active, or
intelligent.
A passive hub simply connects the arms of a star, no
signal regeneration is performed.
An active hub is like a passive hub, except that it
regenerates signals.
Intelligent hubs not only regenerate signals but also
perform activities such as intelligent path selection and
network management.
Star Network

Advantage:
The main advantage of the star architecture over the
bus is its small excess loss, since in case of n-user star
the excess loss increases logarithmically with n, while in
case of n-user bus it increases linearly with n.

Disadvantage:
Since all information in a star network goes through a
central point, stars are easy to troubleshoot.
 Switched topology

A switch is a multiport, Data Link Layer device

A switch learns Media Access Control addresses and stores
them in an internal lookup table
Temporary, switched paths are created between the frames
originator and its intended recipient, and the frames are
forwarded along the temporary path
Switched topology features multiple connections to a switching
hub/Switch
Each port, and the device to which it connects, has its own
dedicated bandwidth
Switched topology
Advantages/Disadvantages of a
Switched topology
Advantage:
Can improve LAN performance:

increase the aggregate bandwidth

available throughout the network
reducing the number of devices forced to
share each segment of bandwidth
Disadvantage:
Large switched implementations do not separate broadcasts
Daisy chains

Developed by serially interconnecting all the hubs of a

network
This simple approach uses ports on existing hubs for
interconnecting the hubs
Daisy chains are easily built and dont require any
special administrative skills
Daisy chains were, historically, the interconnection
method of choice for emerging, first-generation LANs
Daisy chains
Disadvantage of Daisy chain

Increases the number of connections, and

therefore the number of devices, on a LAN.
Too many devices competing for the same
amount of bandwidth can create collisions and
quickly incapacitate a LAN
A Hub/Tree Network

Hub

End node

Hub

Hub Hub Hub

A Hub / Tree Network

 Tree Network

In hub or tree network, the wires that are used to connect

different nodes are collapsed into a central unit, called hub.
Hub does not perform switching function.
It consists of repeaters that retransmitted all the signals from
nodes to all other nodes in the same way.
The multipoint nature of tree topology gives rise to several
problems.
The access control is fairly difficult to determine the time slot
for each node. Another problem with multipoint is signal
balancing.
When two device exchange data over a link, the signal strength
of the transmitter should be adjusted.
If it is low, after attenuation, it might not meet the minimum
signal strength requirement of the transmitter and minimum
signal to noise ratio. If it is very high, it can overload the
circuitry of the transmitter resulting in harmonics and other
spurious signals.
WAN Topologies

The topology of a WAN describes the way the

transmission facilities are arranged relative to the
locations that they interconnect
Numerous topologies are possible, each one offering a
different mix of cost, performance and scalability
WAN Topologies

1) Peer-to-peer WANs
2) Ring WANs
3) Star WANs
4) Full-mesh WANs
5) Partial-mesh WANs
6) Two-tiered
7) Three-tiered
8) Hybrids
Peer-to-peer topology

A peer-to-peer WAN can be developed using leased

private lines or any other transmission facility
This WAN topology is a relatively simple way of
interconnecting a small number of sites
Represents the least-cost solution for WANs that
contain a small number of internetworked locations
Peer-to-peer
Advantage/Disadvantage of Peer-to-
peer
Advantage:
It is inexpensive relative to other options
Disadvantages:
They dont scale very well. As additional locations are
introduced to the WAN, the number of hops between any
given pair of locations remains highly inconsistent and has an
upward trend
An equipment or facility failure anywhere in a peer-to-peer
WAN can split the WAN
Ring topology
Can be developed fairly easily from a peer-to-
peer network by adding one transmission
facility and an extra port on two routers
A ring-shaped WAN constructed with point-to-
point transmission facilities can be used to
interconnect a small number of sites and
provide route redundancy at a potentially
minimal incremental cost
Can use dynamic routing protocols
Ring topology
Advantages/Disadvantages of Ring
topology
Advantages:
It provides alternative routes
It is less expensive than all but the peer-to-peer WAN
Disadvantages:
Depending on the geographic dispersion of the locations,
adding an extra transmission facility to complete the ring may
be cost prohibitive
Rings are not very scalable
Star network Topology

constructed by homing all locations into a

common location
The star topology can be constructed using
almost any dedicated transmission facility
including frame relay and point-to-point
private lines
Advantages/Disadvantages of star
topology
Advantages:
More scalable than a peer-to-peer or ring network
Improved network performance. Hop count of three
Disadvantages:
It creates a single point of failure
There is no route redundancy
Star topology
Full-mesh topology
This topology features the ultimate reliability and
fault tolerance
Every networked node is directly connected to
every other networked node
Redundant routes to each location are plentiful,
hence static routing impractical.
Use dynamic routing protocols
One application would be to provide
interconnectivity for a limited number of routers
that require high network availability
Another potential application is to fully mesh just
parts of the WAN, such as the backbone of a
multitiered WAN or tightly coupled work centers
Advantages/Disadvantages of full-
mesh
Advantages:
Minimizes the number of hops between any two network-
connected machines
Can be built with virtually any transmission technology
Disadvantages:
These WANs can be fairly expensive to build
A finite (although substantial) limit on the scalability of the
network
Full-mesh topology
 Partial-mesh topology

Partial meshes are highly flexible topologies that

can take a variety of very different configurations
The routers are much more tightly coupled than
any of the basic topologies but are not fully
interconnected, as would be the case in a fully
meshed network
A partially meshed WAN topology is readily
identified by the almost complete interconnection
of every node with every other node in the
network
Partial-mesh
Advantages of partial-mesh

Partial meshes offer the capability to minimize hops

for the bulk of the WANs users
Unlike fully meshed networks, a partial mesh can
reduce the startup and operational expenses by not
interconnecting low-traffic segments of the WAN,
hence more affordable and scalable
Two-tiered topology

A two-tiered topology is a modified version of the

basic star topology. Rather than single concentrator
routers, two or more routers are used
A two-tiered WAN constructed with dedicated facilities
offers improved fault tolerance over the simple star
topology without compromising scalability
Two-tiered topology
Three-tiered topology

WANs that need to interconnect a very large number

of sites, or are built using smaller routers that can
support only a few serial connections, may find the
two-tiered architecture insufficiently scalable.
Therefore, adding a third tier may well provide the
additional scalability they require
Three-tiered
Advantage/Disadvantage of three-
tiered
Advantage:
A three-tiered WAN constructed with dedicated facilities offers
even greater fault tolerance and scalability than the two-
tiered topology
Disadvantage:
Three-tiered networks are expensive to build, operate and
maintain
 Hybrid topologies

Hybridization of multiple topologies is useful in

larger, more complex networks
Multitiered networks, in particular, lend
themselves to hybridization. A multitiered WAN
can be hybridized by fully or partially meshing
the backbone tier of routers
An effective hybrid topology may be developed
in a multitiered WAN by using a fully meshed
topology for the backbone nodes only
Hybrid topology
 Channel Fault
Why and when it occurs?
A channel fault occurs when a single wavelength
channel on a link
between two nodes has failed due to the failure
of the laser or
receiver for that wavelength channel, or due to
cable disconnections.

How to manage?
Thus fault can be managed by routing the traffic
to a spare channel
on the same physical link and bypassing the
faulty channel.
Survivable route graph

G
G
A
F A
F
B
B
E

C E
C
D
D
A Network. Survival route graph.
Thanks