Carbohydrate Metabolism

An Overview of
Metabolism
Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP)
Link between energy releasing and
energy requiring mechanisms
rechargeable battery

ADP + P + Energy ATP

Mechanisms of ATP Formation
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Substrate transfers a phosphate group

directly
Requires enzymes

Phosphocreatine + ADP Creatine + ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation
Method by which most ATP formed
Small carbon chains transfer hydrogens to
transporter (NAD or FADH) which enters
the electron transport chain
 Metabolism

Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that

occur in an organism
Cellular metabolism
Cells break down excess carbohydrates first, then
lipids, finally amino acids if energy needs are not
met by carbohydrates and fat
Nutrients not used for energy are used to build up
structure, are stored, or they are excreted
40% of the energy released in catabolism is
captured in ATP, the rest is released as heat
Anabolism
Performance of structural
maintenance and repairs
Support of growth
Production of secretions
Building of nutrient reserves
Catabolism
Breakdown of nutrients to
provide energy (in the form of
ATP) for body processes
Nutrients directly absorbed
Stored nutrients
Cells and Mitochondria
Cells provide small organic
molecules to mitochondria
Mitochondria produce ATP
used to perform cellular
functions
Metabolism of
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Primarily glucose
Fructose and galactose enter the pathways at various points
All cells can utilize glucose for energy production
Glucose uptake from blood to cells usually mediated by
insulin and transporters
Liver is central site for carbohydrate metabolism
Glucose uptake independent of insulin
The only exporter of glucose
 Blood Glucose
Homeostasis
Several cell types prefer glucose as
energy source (ex., CNS)
80-100 mg/dl is normal range of blood
glucose in non-ruminant animals
45-65 mg/dl is normal range of blood
glucose in ruminant animals
Uses of glucose:
Energy source for cells
Muscle glycogen
Fat synthesis if in excess of needs
 Fates of Glucose
Fed state Synthesis
Synthesis and

Storage as glycogen
and
Liver breakdown
breakdown occur
occur
Skeletal muscle
at
at all
all times
times

Storage as lipids
Adipose tissue regardless
regardless ofof
Fasted state

Metabolized for energy

state...
state...
New glucose synthesized
The
The relative
relative rates
rates
of
of synthesis
synthesis and
and
breakdown
breakdown
 High Blood
Glucose

Pancreas

Muscle Insulin Glycogen

Glucose Glucose
absorbed absorbed
Adipose
Cells

Glucose
absorbed
immediately after eating a meal
Glucose Metabolism
Four major metabolic pathways:
Immediate source of energy
Pentophosphate pathway
Glycogen synthesis in liver/muscle
Precursor for triacylglycerol synthesis

Energy status (ATP) of body regulates

which pathway gets energy
Same in ruminants and non-ruminants
Fate of Absorbed Glucose
1st Priority: glycogen storage
Stored in muscle and liver
2nd Priority: provide energy
Oxidized to ATP
3rd Priority: stored as fat
Only excess glucose
Stored as triglycerides in adipose
 Glucose
Utilization
Energy
Adipose Stores Glycogen

Glucose
Pentose Glycolysis
Phosphate
Pathway

Ribose-5-phosphate Pyruvate
 Glucose
Utilization
Energy
Adipose Stores Glycogen

Glucose
Pentose Glycolysis
Phosphate
Pathway

Ribose-5-phosphate Pyruvate
 Glycolysis
Sequence of reactions that
converts glucose into pyruvate
Relatively small amount of energy produced
Glycolysis reactions occur in cytoplasm
Does not require oxygen

Lactate (anaerobic)
Glucose 2 Pyruvate
Acetyl-CoA (TCA cycle)
 Glycolysi
s
Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 Pi
2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 H2O
First Reaction of Glycolysis

Traps glucose in cells (irreversible in muscle cells)

Glycolysis - Summary
Glucose (6C)
2 ATP
4 ADP
2
ADP 4 ATP

2
NAD

2 NADH + H

2 Pyruvate (3C)
Pyruvate Metabolism
Three fates of pyruvate:
Conversion to lactate (anaerobic)
Conversion to alanine (amino acid)
Entry into the TCA cycle via pyruvate
dehydrogenase pathway (create ATP)
Pyruvate Metabolism
Three fates of pyruvate:
Conversion to lactate (anaerobic)
Conversion to alanine (amino acid)
Entry into the TCA cycle via pyruvate
dehydrogenase pathway
 Anaerobic
Metabolism of
Pyruvate
Problem: to Lactate
During glycolysis, NADH is formed from
NAD+
Without O2, NADH cannot be oxidized to
NAD+
No more NAD+
All converted to NADH
Without NAD+, glycolysis stops
 Anaerobic
Metabolism of
Pyruvate
Solution:
Turn NADH back to NAD+ by making lactate
(reduced) (oxidized)
(lactic acid)

NADH+H+ NAD+
COO COO
C O HC OH
Lactatedehydrogenase
CH3 CH3
Pyruvate Lactate
(oxidized) (reduced)
 Anaerobic
Metabolism of
Pyruvate
ATP yield
Two ATPs (net) are produced during
the anaerobic breakdown of one
glucose
The 2 NADHs are used to reduce 2
pyruvate
to 2 lactate
Reaction is fast and doesnt require
oxygen
 Pyruvate Metabolism -
Anaerobic
Lactate Dehydrogenase
Pyruvate Lactate

NADH NAD+

Lactate can be transported by blood to liver and

used in gluconeogenesis
Cori Cycle

Lactate is
converted to
pyruvate in the liver
Pyruvate Metabolism
Three fates of pyruvate:
Conversion to lactate (anaerobic)
Conversion to alanine (amino acid)
Entry into the TCA cycle via pyruvate
dehydrogenase pathway
 Pyruvate metabolism
Convert to alanine and export to blood
Glutamate Ketoglutarate
COO COO
C O HC NH 3+
Alanineaminotransferase
CH 3 (AAT) CH 3
Pyruvate Alanine
Keto acid Amino acid
Pyruvate Metabolism
Three fates of pyruvate:
Conversion to lactate (anaerobic)
Conversion to alanine (amino acid)
Entry into the TCA cycle via pyruvate
dehydrogenase pathway
 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
Complex (PDH)
Prepares pyruvate to enter the TCA cycle

Aerobic Conditions
Electron TCA
Transpor Cycle
t Chain
PDH - Summary
Pyruvat
e

2
NAD

2 NADH + H
CO2

Acetyl
CoA
TCA Cycle
In aerobic conditions TCA cycle links pyruvate
to oxidative phosphorylation
Occurs in mitochondria
Generates 90% of energy obtained from feed

Includes metabolism of
carbohydrate, protein, and fat
Oxidize acetyl-CoA to CO2 and capture
potential energy as NADH (or FADH2) and
some ATP
TCA Cycle -
Summary
Acetyl
CoA 3
NAD
3 NADH +
H
2 CO2
1 FAD

1 FADH2

1
1 ATP ADP
Oxidative Phosphorylation
and the Electron Transport
System
Requires coenzymes (NAD and
FADH) as H+ carriers and consumes
oxygen
Key reactions take place in the
electron transport system (ETS)
Cytochromes of the ETS pass H2s to
oxygen, forming water
Oxidation and Electron
Transport
Oxidation of nutrients releases
stored energy
Feed donates H+
H+s transferred to co-enzymes

NAD+ + 2H+ + 2e- NADH + H+

FAD + 2H+ + 2e- FADH2
 So, What Goes to the
ETS???
From each molecule of glucose entering
glycolysis:
1. From glycolysis: 2 NADH
2. From the TCA preparation step (pyruvate to acetyl-CoA): 2
NADH
3. From TCA cycle (TCA) : 6 NADH and 2 FADH 2

TOTAL: 10 NADH + 2 FADH2

Electron Transport Chain
NADH + H+ and FADH2 enter ETC
Travel through complexes I IV
H+ flow through ETC and eventually
attach to O2 forming water

NADH + H+ 3 ATP
FADH2 2 ATP
Electron Transport Chain
Total ATP from Glucose
Anaerobic glycolysis 2 ATP + 2
NADH
Aerobic metabolism glycolysis +
TCA
38 ATP from 1 glucose molecule