System Identification: a Cornerstone of

Structural Design in the Aerospace and

Automotive Industries

Herman Van der Auweraer

SCORES Workshop
Leuven, 12-10-2004
 Overview

Objective: To discuss the vital importance of System

Identification in the Mechanical Design Engineering Process
To identify the specific challenges for this kind of problems and
to illustrate the research needs
Illustrate with typical products: cars, aircraft, satellites, . where
adequate mechanical product behaviour is vital

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 Overview

Introduction: the role of Structural Dynamics in

Mechanical Design Engineering

Approach and methodology for Structural Dynamics

Analysis: Experimental Modal Analysis

Modal Parameter Identification methods

Applications of modal analysis

Recent evolutions and challenges for the future

Conclusions

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 Introduction
Mechanical Design Engineering
Market Demand: Delivering products with the required
mechanical characteristics: Excel in
Operational quality (performance specifications)
Reliability (load tolerance, fatigue, life-time)
Safety (vehicle crash, aircraft flutter.)
Comfort (noise, vibration, harshness)
Environmental impact (emissions, waste, noise,
recycling)
Process process challenges: Excel in
Time-to-Market: reduce design cycle
Reduce design costs
Product customization

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 Introduction
Economic Impact: Some Figures

Typical vehicle development programs require investment

budgets of 1 .. 4 B$
New Mercedes C-class (Automotive Engineering Intl., Aug. 2000):
600 M$ development + 700M$ production facilities
Developed in less than 4 years
New Mini: 200M development costs (+ as much in marketing...)
Chrysler minivan (The Critical Path by Brock Yates):
2 B$ development budget, of which 250 M$ R&D
36 different body styles, 2 wheelbases, 4 engines

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 Introduction
Time Pressure Increases Recall Risks

Warranty costs may explode the overall budget

2000 warranty cost (Mercedes-Benz) : 1.5 b$

Warranty cost exceeds R&D cost
Warranty cost x 3 in 2 years
years ...
...

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 Introduction
Mechanical Design Engineering
Early Design Optimization is Essential
Product design has to go beyond the Form and Fit
Focus on Functional Performance Engineering
For mechanical performances: structural analysis
Static: strength, load analysis
Kinematic: mechanisms, motion
Dynamic: vibrations, fatigue, noise

Basic approach: is through the use of structural models

A priori (Finite Element) and experimental (Modal)
Analyze the effect of dynamic loads
Understand the intrinsic structural dynamics behaviour
Derive optimal design modifications

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 Introduction: A Systems Approach
A Source-Transmitter-Receiver Model

TACTILE
Engine Steering Wheel
Total Vehicle Shake
System
Seat Vibration

Wheel & Tire

VISUAL
Unbalance

Rearview mirror
Road Input vibration

ACOUSTIC
Accessories
Noise at Drivers
Environmental & Passengers
Sources Ears
Source X System Transfer = Receiver

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 Overview

Introduction: the role of Structural Dynamics in

Mechanical Design Engineering

Approach and methodology for Structural Dynamics

Analysis: Experimental Modal Analysis

Modal Parameter Identification methods

Applications of modal analysis

Recent evolutions and challenges for the future

Conclusions

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Principles
Structural dynamics modelling: relating force inputs to
displacement/acceleration outputs
Multiple D.o.F. System: M& x&(t ) C x&(t ) K x (t ) f (t )

f (t) f (t) f (t)

1 2 n
k2 k n+1
k1
ground

ground
m 1 m 2 m n

c c2 c
1 n+1

x (t) x (t) x (t)

1 2 n

Continuous structures approximated by discrete number of

degrees of freedom -> Finite Element Matrix Formulation
Majority of methods and applications: Linear and Time-Invariant
models assumed

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Principles
Modal Analysis: Related to Eigenvalue Analysis

Time domain equation x&(t ) C x&(t ) K x(t ) f (t )

M&

Laplace domain equation ( s 2 M sC K ) X ( s ) F ( s )

Eigenvalue analysis -> system poles and Eigenvectors

System pole -> Resonance frequency and damping value

k , *k k k j 1 k2 k

Eigenvector -> Mode shape

Transformation vectors to Modal Space

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Principles
Modal Shape: Eigenvector in the physical space: physical
interpretation (Example Skytruck)

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 Modal Analysis Principle;
Decomposition in Eigenmodes
Modal Analysis: The modal superposition

a1 x a2 x

= + +

+
+ +

x a3 x a4
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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Principles
Modal Analysis: An input/output relation
Transfer Function Formulation:

X ( s) H ( s) F ( s)
H ( s ) [ s 2 M sC K ]1
Model reduction (Finite number of modes):

Ak Qk {k } Tk

n
Ak Ak*
H (s)
k 1 s k s *
k k , *k k k j 1 k2 k

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Principles
Experimental Analysis: using input/output measurements

Input System Output

u (t) y(t)
U()
H Y()

Non-parametric estimates (FRF, IR) -> Data reduction

Black box models (ARX, state-space)
Modal models

Standard experimental modal analysis approach: Fitting the

Transfer Function model by Frequency Response Function
measurements

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Test Procedure
Excitation
Shakers (Random, Sine)
or Hammer (Impulsive)
Load cell for force meas.
Response
Accelerometers
Laser (LDV)
Cross-spectra averaging to
estimate FRFs
Measurement system
FFT analyzer (2-4 channel)
PC & data-acquisition
front-end (2-1000
channels)
patching -> non-
simultaneous data
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 Experimental Modal Analysis:
Aircraft Test Setup Example
Responses Inputs

Ground Vibration Test

(GVT) System
H11 H12 H13 H14
F3

Responses

H 21 H 22 H 23 H 24
F4 H 31 H 32 H 33 H 34
F1
H 41 H 42 H 43 H 44
F2

Force Inputs 1 row or column

0.10
suffices to determine
modal parameters
((m/s2)/N)

Log

Reciprocity

H pq H qp
Hz
0.00 0.00 Linear 80.00
180.00 0.00 Hz 80.00
Phase

-180.00
0.00 Hz 80.00

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
A Typical Experiment
Input System Output

Vehicle Body Test

F H X

F : 2 inputs
Indicated by arrows
X : 240 outputs
All nodes in picture
H has 480 elements

X=H*F
Vertical force

Horizontal force

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Typical FRFs

Industrial
Gear box

Vehicle
Subframe
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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Typical FRFs

Engine block
driving point FRF

Engine block
FRF

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Ambient Excitation Tests
Many applications do not allow input/output tests
No possibility to apply input
Typical product loading difficult to realise (non-linear effects)
Large ambient excitation levels present
Specific approach:
Use output-only data (responses)
Assume white noise excitation
Reduce output data to covariances or cross-powers

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
The Analysis Process
Modal Analysis: identification of modal model parameters
from the FRF (or Covariances)
Specific problems:
Large number of inputs/outputs, long records (noisy data)
Non-simultaneous I/O measurements
High system orders, order truncation, modal overlap
Low system damping (0.1 .. 10%), Large dynamic range

Specific approach:
Simultaneous (global) analysis of all reduced (FRF) data
Order problem: Repeated analysis for increasing orders
-> The stabilisation diagram

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 Experimental Modal Analysis
Principles
Experimental Modal Analysis: using FRF measurements in
a reduced set of structural locations

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 Overview

Introduction: the role of structural dynamics in Mechanical

Design Engineering
Approach and methodology for structural dynamics analysis:
experimental modal analysis
Modal Parameter Identification methods
Usually taking into account the physical model
Use of raw time data exceptional -> reduced FRF models
Time and frequency domain approaches
Industrial and societal applications of modal analysis
Recent evolutions and challenges for the future
Conclusions

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 Modal Model Parameter Identification
Main Methods

Frequency domain methods: rational polynomial FRF model

( ).B
j j N M 1

H( ) j 0
M
H ( ) [ j ( ).B j ][ j ( ). A j ]
j ( ).A j
j 0
j 0 j 0

Nonlinear in the unknowns

Common denominator methods n
Ak Ak*
Partial fraction expansion methods
H ()
k 1 j k

j *k
Linearized methods
State space formulations (Eigensystem Realization)

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 Modal Model Parameter Identification
Main Methods

Linear frequency domain method

N M

j 0
j ( )B j H ( ) j ( ) A j 0
j 0

Weighted or not
LS, TLS
Maximum Likelihood: takes data variance into account -> Non-
linear error formulation -> iterative; Error bounds!!
Continuous or discrete frequency domain
Preferred approach: PolyMAX, Least Squares Discrete
Frequency Domain LS/TLS, originating from VUB.

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 Modal Model Parameter Identification
Main Methods

Time domain: Complex damped exponential approach (UC)

Nm
[ Rk ] r e r kt
{L} e r * kt
T *
r r {L}Tr *
r 1

Impulse responses or correlations are solutions of the

characteristic equation

Rk I Rk 1 W1 ... Rk t Wt 0
Poles: found as eigenvalues of [Wi] companion matrix
Modeshapes: Least-squares fit of FRF matrix

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 Modal Model Parameter Identification
Main Methods
Time domain: Discrete time state space model -> Subspace method
In particular used with output-only data: stochastic subspace

xk 1 A xk wk [ A] [ ][][ ]1
y C x v
k k k r e r t r r i r r [C ] r

Estimate [A] and [C] from

output-only data (KUL)
covariances (INRIA):

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 Modal Model Parameter Identification
Main Methods
Stabilisation diagram: discrimination of physical poles
versus mathematical/spurious poles -> heuristic approach

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 Overview

Introduction: the role of structural dynamics in

Mechanical Design Engineering

Approach and methodology for structural dynamics

analysis: experimental modal analysis

Modal Parameter Identification methods

Applications of modal analysis

Recent evolutions and challenges for the future

Conclusions

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 EMA Example:
Aircraft Modal Analysis
Component Development
Engine, landing gear, .
Aircraft Ground Vibration Tests
Low frequency: 0 20 40 Hz
> 50 orders, > 250 DOF
Model Validation & updating
Flutter prediction

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 EMA Example:
Aircraft Modal Analysis (Dash 8)

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 EMA Example:
Aircraft Modal Analysis for Aeroelasticity (Flutter)

Frequency (Hz)
Airspeed (kts)

Damping (%)
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 EMA Example:
Aircraft FE Model Correlation and Updating
6

FEM FEM + 5% Eigenfrequency

5
correlation

Analytical Frequencies [Hz]

4

- 5%
3

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Measured Frequencies [Hz]
GVT

GVT GVT Mode shape

Correlation (MAC)

Courtesy H. Schaak, Airbus France FEM

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 EMA Example:
Business Jet, Wing-Vane In-Flight Excitation
In-flight excitation, 2 wing-tip vanes
9 responses
2 min sine sweep
Higher order harmonics
Very noisy data

0.10

Log
(g /N)
Hz
0.00 4.00 Linear 20.00
180.00 4.00 Linear 20.00

Phase
Hz

-180.00

PolyMAX Hz

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 In-Operation Modal Analysis Example:
PZL-Sokol Helicopter Testing
Flight tests in different conditions (speed, climbing, hover)
3 flights needed, 90 points
Correlation lab. / flight results
No problem with rotor frequencies

SNR GROUND TEST CLIMBING FLIGHT TEST

MODE 6.40 Hz MODE 6.37 Hz
MR-I ODS 6.4 Hz mode

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 EMA Example:
Car Body and Suspension Tests
Suspension EMA for a
rolling-noise problem :
Booming noise at 80Hz
Main contribution from
rear suspension mounts

0.13
(( m /s 2 ) /N
)

Body EMA for basic

Log

bending and torsion 0.00 25.00

179.98 25.00
Hz
Linear
Linear
75.00
75.00

analysis (vehicle Hz
Phas e

stiffness)

-179.96
25.00 Hz 75.00

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 EMA Example:
Civil Structures Dynamics

Input-output Output-only
testing testing

resund Bridge

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 Example:
Civil Structures - The Vasco da Gama Bridge
In-operation Modal Analysis
Covariance Driven
Stochastic Subspace

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 Overview

Introduction: the role of structural dynamics in

Mechanical Design Engineering

Approach and methodology for structural dynamics

analysis: experimental modal analysis

Modal Parameter Identification methods

Applications of modal analysis

Recent evolutions and challenges for the future

Conclusions

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 Industrial Model Analysis:
What are the issues and challenges?
Optimizing the Test process
Large structures (> 1000 points, in operating vehicles)
Novel transducers (MEMS, TEDS)
Optical measurements
Complex structures, novel materials, high and distributed damping
(uneven energy distribution)
Multiple excitation (MIMO Tests)
Use of a priori information for experiment design
Nonlinearity checks, non-linear model detection and
identification
Excitation Design: Get maximal information in minimal time

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 Industrial Model Analysis:
What are the issues and challenges?
Optimizing the Analysis process
High model orders, numerical stability
Discrimination between physical and mathematical poles
Automated modal analysis

Test and analysis duration and complexity

Test-right-first-time
Support user interaction with smart results
Automating as much as possible the whole process
Quantifying data and result uncertainty

-> bring intelligence in the test and analysis process

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 Innovation and Challenges:
Data Quality Assessment
Automatic Assessment and Classification of FRF Quality and Plausibility
x1
1

x2 2

x2 hid1 hid2

1.00
Amplitude
/

F Coherence lfw :38:-Z/Multiple

F Coherence rgw :38:-Z/Multiple

0.00
2.00 Hz 30.00

Coherence analysis (225 spectral lines X 540 DOFs)

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 Uncertainty and Reliability:
A Research Context
Methods to assess uncertainty and variability of CAE models:
Input distribution -> response distribution
Fuzzy-FE, transformation method, Monte-Carlo
Robust design and reliability considerations
What about test data confidence limits?

IN

OUT

Uncertainty in front craddle

Youngs modulus (190-210 GPa)
mass density (7600-8000 kg/m3)
shell thickness (1.6-2.4 mm)

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 Innovation and Challenges:
Automating Modal Parameter Estimation
Mimic the human operator (rules, implicit -> NN)?
Iterative methods (MLE)
Fundamental issue: discriminate mathematical and physical poles
Indicators (damping value, p-z cancellation or correlation)
Fast stabilizing estimation methods
Clustering techniques

PolyMAX

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 Industrial Model Analysis:
What are the issues and challenges?
Novel applications
Combined Ambient I/O testing
Nonlinear system detection and identification
Build system-level models combining EMA and FE models
Vibro-acoustic modal analysis: include cavity models
Mechatronic and control
End-of-line control
Model-based monitoring
..

Healthy structure Damaged structure

2nd mode shape

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 Innovative Applications:
Building Hybrid System Models

Engine Subframe Body

& & Vibro-acoustics
Brackets Crossmember
HSS
Hybrid
System Engine Mounts Bushings
Synthesis
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 Innovative Applications:
Vibro-Acoustic Modal Analysis
Acoustic resonances, coupled structural-acoustical
behaviour can be modelled by vibro-acoustic modal models

KS K C x CS 0 x M S
0 x f
j
2
f c
0 K p 0 C f p M M f p pq

Excitation by shakers and

loudspeakers -> Balancing of test
data needed (p/f, x/f, p/Q, x/Q)
Non-symmetrical modal model
Through structural acoustic
coupling
Different right and left
eigenvectors

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 Vibro-Acoustic Modal Analysis
Example: Aircraft Interior Noise
f = 32.9 Hz = 8.5%

ATR42

f = 78.3 Hz = 7.0%

F100

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 Summary and Outlook

Early product optimization is essential to meet market demands

Mechanical Design Analysis and Optimization heavily rely on
Structural Models
Experimental Modal Analysis is the key approach, it is a de-facto
standard in many industries
While EMA is in essence a system identification problem,
particular test and analysis issues arise due to model size and
complexity
Important challenges are related to supporting the industrial
demands (test time and accuracy) and novel applications
Research efforts should also pay attention to state-of-the-use
breakthroughs

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